We are writing a historical portrait (C6). Ancient Russia. historical portraits
1. Historical portrait of Nikolai Khristianovich BUNGE(1823-1895)
Scientist-economist, Russian statesman, from 1882-1886 - Minister of Finance. Graduated from Kyiv University, Faculty of Law. As a Master of Laws, he researched the beginning of commercial legislation under Peter the Great, as a Doctor of Laws, he researched the theory of credit.
The main directions of his activity as the Minister of Finance of Russia (1882-1886) and the results:
Finances: a) - lowering redemption payments. The total amount of reductions was up to 12 million rubles a year, and this led to an improvement in the situation in the countryside. C) - The per capita tax and the salt excise have been abolished, but to compensate for the falling taxes, taxes on alcohol, sugar, tobacco have been increased, and import duties have been increased. But he failed to balance the budget.
Agrarian issue: a) - A Peasant Bank was created, which helped the peasants to buy land. c) - proposed to abolish the community. b) - The Noble Bank was opened, which, in its opinion, should issue loans only to noble landowners, but the State. the council canceled it.
Labor legislation: a) - 1884 - a law prohibiting the labor of young children in factories and limiting labor to 8 hours for adolescents (12-15 years old). B) - 1885 - a ban on night work for 17 year olds and a ban on women's night work in textile factories. C) - 1886 - "Rules on the Supervision of the Behavior of the Factory Industry", where payment in kind was prohibited, fines were limited, and repressions against workers for participating in strikes were intensified. D) - In 1882, a factory inspection appeared.
He was an opponent of the extremes of the autocratic government of the country, criticized the resettlement policy. P.A. Stolypin can be considered his successor. And his opponents, who achieved his resignation, called him "foreign minister", but according to the results of his activities and from the height of Time, we can call him a true Citizen and patriot of Russia.
2. Historical portrait - VISHEGRADSKY Ivan Alekseevich. (1831-1895)
Russian scientist and statesman, from 1887-1892 - Minister of Finance of Russia.
He studied at the theological seminary and graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at the capital's university. The main directions of its activity and results:
1- Most of my life is devoted to science and teaching. He created the Russian scientific school of mechanical engineers, the author of Elementary Mechanics, one of the founders of the theory of automatic control, has technical inventions.
2- Actively engaged entrepreneurial activity in the railway industry and earned a million
3- From January 1887 - Minister of Finance of Russia. The purpose of his activities in this post: the destruction of the budget deficit and the patronage of domestic industry. For this, the following was done: a) direct and indirect taxes were increased, so the drinking excise was increased, oil and match excise taxes were introduced, an additional excise tax on refined sugar appeared, and the grain export tariff was reduced. These measures led to a deterioration in the situation of the working population, especially in the countryside. In 1891-1892. there was a famine. It was possible to reduce the budget deficit, but not eliminate it forever. The gold reserves of the country increased, the monetary currency became more stable.
4- As Minister of Finance, he carried out reforms: 1899 - control and financial, 1899 - tariff.
He retired in 1892 for health reasons. In many ways, he continued the undertakings of N.Kh Bunge, but he lacked a broad outlook and, nevertheless, he did a lot for the power and prosperity of pre-revolutionary Russia. This is an example of serving the Fatherland for us.
3. Historical portrait - Sergei Yulievich WITTE (1848-1915)
An outstanding statesman, public figure, count, reformer, late 19th - early 20th centuries, the first chairman of the Council of Ministers of Russia (prime minister).
Father is Baltic German. Graduated from the Novorossiysk University (Odessa), Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences. But he is not engaged in science and, under patronage, gets a place in the management of the Odessa railway. Having moved to the capital, he participates in the Baranovskaya commission, created by Alexander II "for the study railways Russia" and develops the charter of the railways. In 1883 he wrote the book "Principles of railway tariffs for the carriage of goods", which becomes authoritative among specialists.
Since 1889 he has been working in the Department of Railway Affairs under the Government of Russia. The results of his activities in the department: a) won the right to appoint employees depending on their performance in work, and not on the basis of kinship or patronage, manifests himself as a supporter of protectionism for domestic industry, advocates strict customs barriers. B) -In 1891, the Customs Tariff of Russia and Witte were adopted together with D.I. Mendeleev took an active part in its development. The role of this document in the then Russia was great.
Since 1882 - appointed Minister of Railways. The results of his activities: a) - Under his leadership, large accumulations of untransported goods were eliminated (which sometimes was an insoluble problem).
From the end of 1892 to 1903 - S.Yu. Witte was appointed Minister of Finance of Russia. Directions of his activities as Minister of Finance and results: a) - issued a circular on recruiting only persons with higher education. There were "commercial" educational institutions of a technical profile. b) - accelerated the construction of the Trans-Siberian. C) - In 1894, he conducted tough trade negotiations with Germany and as a result a trade agreement was concluded for a period of 10 years. d) - Since 1895, a wine monopoly was introduced and this became a reliable source for replenishing the state budget E) In 1896, successful negotiations were held with China and we received the right to build the CER. E) - In 1897, a monetary reform was carried out, the result of which was a significant strengthening of the ruble.
He believed that the nobility should be included in the economic process in the country - "become bourgeois". In the countryside, the communal way of life needs to be destroyed, and Stolypin P.A. reproached him for stealing his idea of destroying the community. After resigning from the post of Minister of Finance, he is still active and active.
Nicholas II, in a conversation with the ambassador about the death of Witte, said: "a large center of intrigue went out with him." But for us, this is an example of a government official who thought about Russia and did a lot for its prosperity.
4. Historical portrait of P.A. STOLYPIN (1862-1911)
Statesman, reformer, supporter of tough measures in the suppression of unrest in 1905-1907, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Russia.
Studied at St. Petersburg University at the natural department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. He was Grodno and Saratov governor. The main directions of his activities and results: he carried out a number of laws, known as agrarian reform, the main purpose of which was the introduction of private peasant land ownership. In 1906 and in 1910, laws were passed that dealt with agriculture and land management. The law encouraged the formation of cuts and farms, but did not encroach on landownership. Lack of land and overpopulation of the countryside caused a policy of resettlement of peasants away from the landlords' lands - to Siberia, Central Asia, Far East. Benefits and state measures were developed for them. support. From 1906 to 1914 more than 3 million people were resettled. During the 7 years of active implementation of the reform, notable successes have been achieved: 1 - the area under crops has increased, 2 - the export of grain abroad has increased, 3 - the purchases of agricultural machinery by peasants have increased. Stolypin's activities could seriously strengthen tsarist Russia. The revolutionaries saw him as a dangerous adversary, since by his activities he distracted the peasants from the revolution. The king was also burdened by his energetic assistant, who was in the foreground in the country. Stolypin's resignation was approaching, but the terrorists were ahead of it. In September 1911, Pyotr Arkadyevich was mortally wounded in Kyiv ...
V.V. Rozanov in 1911 wrote “What was valued in Stolypin? Not a program, but a man, a warrior who defended Russia.” Today, such personalities are in demand in Russia. For me, the Great Russian patriot P.A. Stolypin is an example of the attitude towards the cause and the homeland.
5. Historical portrait of NIKON (1605-1681).
Patriarch of Moscow. Born into a Mordovian peasant family. He was brought up in a monastery, and in 1626 he was ordained a priest and married. He is well-read and has his own point of view on some controversial issues. Since 1635, after the tragic death of his children, he persuaded his wife to settle with him in monasteries. Under the name Nikon, he was tonsured at the Holy Trinity Skete of the Solovetsky Monastery. In 1646 he moved to Moscow, where he was introduced to Alexei Mikhailovich. Soon he became the archimandrite of the Novospassky Monastery. He became close to the members of the informal circle of "zealots of piety". They included: the archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral Stefan Vonifatevich - the king's confessor, boyar F. Rtishchev, I. Neronov. They were united by the goal: the revival of religious church life in the state, improving morality and correcting translations of liturgical books.
On July 25, 1652, he was elevated to the rank of Patriarch. The directions of his activities and the main results in this post: a) 1653 - the order of Patriarch Nikon to make the sign of the cross with 3 fingers, b) - The Council of 1654 laid the foundation for the harmonization of Moscow books with Greek ones. And as a result, the opinion rooted in the people and among part of the priesthood about the superiority of Russian piety over Greek, as well as the sharpness of the reformers themselves, led to a split. Supporters of Nikon and his opponents (schismatics or Old Believers) appeared. C) - In 1653 the Iversky Monastery was built, and in 1656 the New Jerusalem Monastery was founded. A quarrel with the tsar and the trickery of enemies lead to the fact that in 1666 Nikon was deprived of all posts and exiled to the Ferapontov Belozersky Monastery. Nikon died in 1681 on the way from exile. Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich insisted that he be buried with honors.
The reforms of Patriarch Nikon are an attempt to establish the spiritual power above the secular one, which, as he thought, would make the state stronger. But this only led to a split in society and in the church. It seems to me that in modern Russia again there is a similar confrontation.
6. Historical portrait - ORDIN - NASCHEKIN Afanasy Lavrentievich.(1605-1680) diplomat and politician during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.
He came from a modest landowning family. He received an excellent family education. Knows languages. According to his contemporaries, he was "a talker and a thin pen" and had a subtle and sharp mind. Starts service at the age of 17. His career began in 1642. He takes part in the delimitation of the Russian-Swedish border after the Peace of Stolbovsky. In 1667, after the successful conclusion of the Andrusov peace, he received the rank of boyar and headed the Ambassadorial order. Repeatedly proposed to expand economic and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe and the East. He believed that it would be expedient to conclude an alliance with Poland to fight against Sweden for the Baltic coast. BUT in 1671, intriguers achieved his disgrace.
His career is unique Russian history, as he was a small-scale nobleman, but he reached high positions not thanks to connections, but due to personal achievements and abilities. This example is a great motivation for my studies.
Historical portrait of ARAKCHEEV Alexey Andreevich (1769-1834)- Russian statesman and military leader, reformer of Russian artillery and artillery general. His father was a poor nobleman. The son was first raised by a family, and then his father arranged for him to be an artillery cadet corps in St. Petersburg. He studied successfully, was familiar with the family of Count Saltykov. And soon the Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich asked the count to recommend an efficient artillery officer for him, and this officer turned out to be Alexei Andreevich Arakcheev. In the service of the Grand Duke, he proved himself to be diligent, disciplined and tireless. This was soon appreciated. Pavel Petrovich appointed him commandant of Gatchina. And he described him as "an unsurpassed master of drill in Russia." A new round in his career begins under Alexander the First in 1803. And since 1808 he was appointed Minister of War. His activities in the ministerial post and its results: a) - new rules and regulations were created for various parts of the military administration, b) - correspondence was simplified and shortened, c) reserve recruiting depots and training battalions were established, d) a new organization was given to artillery and its material part is ordered. The positive consequences of these transformations were not slow to affect during the war of 1812-1814. On January 1, 1810, Arakcheev left the ministry and was appointed chairman of the department of military affairs under the State Council. And during the war, he was engaged in the formation of reserves and the supply of the army. His authority grows and the king entrusts him with the affairs of civil administration. The organization of military settlements is the will of the king, but Arakcheev fulfilled it energetically, consistently and harshly. Was disinterested. He was awarded for his service with awards, but he refused some. He did not take part in the suppression of the performance of the Decembrists, for which he was dismissed by Nicholas the First. He experienced Alexander's death as a personal tragedy.
According to modern researchers A.A. Arakcheev was "one of the most effective administrators in Russian history and an ideal performer." And I think this example is worthy of emulation.
Historical portrait - Yegor Frantsievich KANKRIN (1774-1845), statesman, 4th Minister of Finance of Russia, General Quartermaster. He studied at two German universities, where he successfully studied law. He came to Russia in 1797 to help his father (he was the director of salt works in Staraya Russa). During World War II, he fully showed his abilities. Largely due to the diligence shown by him, the Russian troops during the hostilities did not feel the need for food. It was responsible for the liquidation of settlements between Russia and other states. He made sure that all food during foreign campaigns reached the army, fought against theft. For this activity he was awarded the Order of St. Anne, 1st class. From 1823 to 1844 - Minister of Finance of Russia. Directions of its activities and results: a) - takes measures to restore the metal monetary circulation, a silver ruble appears. B) Measures have been taken to strengthen the protection system. To this end, tariffs have been revised. Supporter of protective duties. Customs duties are used as a way to generate income to the treasury from privileged persons, free from direct taxes. C) - Carries out measures to improve state reporting and accounting. Implements accurate cost estimates and reports. D) - Develops technical education, so a Technological Institute is opened in the capital. D) - Instead of the state monopoly on the sale of wine, he introduced a tax-paying system that was beneficial for finances, but harmful to people's morality. During his ministerial activity, the amount of direct taxes was increased by 10 million rubles. silver by attracting foreigners to pay the poll tax and revising the tax on the right to trade. But he failed to create a special financial system. All his activities are permeated with one fundamental contradiction: on the one hand, factory production was supported by high tariffs, and on the other hand, the domestic market was destroyed by taxes. Nevertheless, order and balancing was put in place in the Russian budget, which was preserved until the start of the Crimean War.
Activities of E.F. Kankrina is an example of a master's attitude towards the country, and this makes us sympathetic.
Historical portrait - Alexander Khristoforovich BENKENDORF(1781-1844). Military commander, general of the cavalry, chief of gendarmes, chief of the III department of His Own Imperial Majesty's Chancellery. (1826-1844)
Participant in the war with the Turks and participant in the Patriotic War of 1812. He actively participated in the investigation into the case of the Decembrists, for which he received a special favor from Emperor Nicholas I and was appointed chief of the gendarmes. His activities and results in this post: a) - the king instructed him to supervise A.S. Pushkin. But he sincerely wondered what Pushkin needed, but he knew well what the authorities needed. He wrote letters to the poet with affectionate instructions, after which, according to Eidelman, "I did not want to live and breathe." B) - Accompanied the king during his trips to the army during the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, ensured his safety during the battles. C) - in 1840 he was appointed to be present in the committees on courtyard people and on the transformation of Jewish life. He treated the Jews favorably.
His name and role in the history of Russia are associated with the name of the Great Pushkin, and it seems to me that she was protective ...
10. Historical portrait - Alexey Nikolaevich KOSYGIN (1904-1980), statesman and party leader, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR from 1964-1980, Twice Hero of Socialist Labor.
From 1930-1935 he studied at the Textile Institute named after S.M. Kirov. He served in the army from 1919-1921, since 1939 he was a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and served as People's Commissar of the textile industry. During the war of 1941-1945, he held the post of deputy. Chairman of the Council for the Evacuation, and from January 1941 to July 1942 he was authorized by the State Defense Committee in besieged Leningrad and was engaged in supplying the population and troops, directing the evacuation of the population and the organization "Roads of Life". Being the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, he seeks economic reforms (1965). The essence of the reforms was: a) - decentralization of national economic planning, b) - increasing the role of integral indicators of production (profit, profitability), c) - increasing the independence of enterprises. Results: The Eighth Five-Year Plan, which passed under the sign of economic reform (1966-1970), was "golden". BUT then the reform comes to naught, because the initiator of the reforms is not very competent in agriculture and the party apparatus shows inertia. As a politician A.N. Kosygin takes part in the settlement of the conflict with China (over Damansky Island), and the only member of the Politburo did not support the decision to send Soviet troops to Afghanistan, which led to a break with Brezhnev and his entourage. But Kosygin resigned for health reasons, not because of disagreements.
He was a talented organizer, an intelligent economist, and a wise politician. "Kosygin did not like Khrushchev, did not like Brezhnev, but both retained him as the head of the country's economy." So, he was necessary for both the People and the Motherland.
Historical portrait - SPERANSKY Mikhail Mikhailovich (1772-1839), Russian public and statesman, reformer and founder of Russian legal science and theoretical jurisprudence. Born in the family of a priest, in 1780 he was placed in the diocesan seminary under the name Speransky. He is the first student in the sciences, sociable, able to get along with everyone, disciplined, persistent, good-natured. In 1788, after the merger of the seminaries, he was sent to study at the Alexander Nevsky Seminary, and in 1792 he was offered a position as a teacher there. In 1795, he was recommended for the position of house secretary to Prince B. Kurakin, and when he became prosecutor general, he took Speransky with him. When Alexander I came to the throne, his career went up rapidly. He is already the emperor's secretary. In 1802-1804) writes a series of notes "On the fundamental laws of the state", "On the power of public opinion", which substantiates the need for reforms in Russia. On February 20, 1803, with his participation (concept, text), a decree “on free (free) cultivators” was published. In 1803, on behalf of the emperor, he compiled a “Note on the arrangement of judicial and government institutions in Russia”, where he appears as a supporter of the constitutional monarchy. This plan was not realized, but a special provision on the sale of church candles was used by the clergy until 1917. After the conclusion of the Tilsit peace, the emperor instructs him to draw up a plan for social and political reforms. Of this plan, only the creation of the State Council (1810) was implemented. These reforms caused a storm of indignation on the part of officials, and under their pressure, the king dismissed him and exiled him. He returned to the capital only in 1821. Under Nicholas I, he was attracted to the Supreme Court over the Decembrists. They say when the verdict was passed, Speransky wept. In 1835 he was appointed lecturer in law to the heir. Soon it was established graduate School jurisprudence” for the training of lawyers. And this became the main feat of Speransky's life. During all the years of disgrace, he constantly worked on compiling a complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, which included all the laws from 1649 to 1825. and in 1830 this work was published in 45 volumes!!!. In 1832 the Code of Laws appeared in 15 volumes. It was a worthy result of many years of hard work and an invaluable contribution to the development of the country.
His abilities made him indispensable, and that is why he had such a dizzying career. His fate is an example of how an educated and disciplined person can change the course of history.
12. Historical portrait - BUKHARIN Nikolai Ivanovich (1888 - 1838), Soviet political, state and party leader, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. He studied at the economic department of the law faculty of Moscow University. A member of the RSDLP party since 1908, he worked in trade unions, in 1911 he was arrested, exiled, but flees abroad. Abroad writes economic articles. Returns to Russia in 1917 through Japan. At first he was an opponent of the conclusion of the Brest peace, but then he supported Lenin in this matter. Appointed editor of the newspaper Pravda, published a number of articles: Political Economy of Rentier, World Economy and Imperialism and became one of the theoretical economists of the RCP(b). In 1919, together with E. Preobrazhensky, he wrote the ABC of Communism. Lenin, on the whole, has a positive attitude towards his work. In the "trade union discussion" of 1920-1921, she occupies a "buffer" position between Lenin and Trotsky. After Lenin's death, he became close to Stalin and even became friends. In 1924 he actively fought against Trotsky. After analyzing the failures of the policy of war communism, he accepts the transition to the NEP as correct, and in 1925 puts forward the slogan “enrich yourself. Accumulate, develop your economy”, pointing out that “the socialism of the poor is lousy socialism”. But at the same time, he takes part in the development of the Stalinist theory of "building socialism in one single country." In 1928, he openly opposed the forcing of collectivization, offering an evolutionary path of development in the countryside. And after an article in Pravda, Notes of an Economist, where he calls forcing collectivization an “adventuristic” way to solve the crisis. After that, at the plenum of the party, he was accused of right deviation and he was deprived of all posts and was in disgrace. In 1929 he was removed from the Politburo after he did not "repent". From 1934-1937 - Editor of the Izvestia newspaper. During the political processes of 1936 and 1937. the defendants (Zinoviev, Kamenev, Ratzek) pointed to Bukharin. In 1937 he was expelled from the party and arrested. In the cell he writes articles, for example - "Degradation of culture under fascism" and letters to an old friend, Stalin. In these letters, he first insists that he is not an enemy of either the party or the USSR, then asks to cancel the public trial, and then asks to give him poison in the cell. Begging for pity! But ... In 1937 he was shot ... In 1956 - rehabilitated
His life and work is a vivid illustration of the fact that in politics (as it always seems to me) you need to have a firm position, and if you don’t have one, or are unable to implement it, then you need to maintain an official position so as not to harm others.
13. ALEXEY FYODOROVICH ADASHEV (? - 1560)
Statesman of the times of Ivan the Terrible. Duma nobleman (falconer, bed-keeper). Head of the Government of the Chosen Rada.
Descended from Kostroma nobles, not a very noble family. Thanks to his talents and devotion to the king, he ended up in the Chosen Rada. Personal characteristics: severe, domineering, ascetic, fair and deeply religious person. A. Kurbsky about him "is like an earthly angel."
From 1540 - 1550s he was in the Elected Rada, which was actually an unofficial government in the country. A number of reforms are associated with the name of Adashev, which strengthened the tsarist power: the first Zemsky Sobor, the Stoglavy Church Council was convened, charters were granted, which strengthened the position of service people. He participated in the development of the Sudebnik, contributed to the abolition of the feeding system, the implementation of military reform, namely the creation of a "chosen thousand" warriors from the nobility. Clever, energetic, he was so close to the Tsar that he became the keeper of his personal archive, and the state seal "for urgent and secret matters." Around 1550 became treasurer, headed the finances of the state. He supervised the writing of official digit books, the sovereign's genealogy and the Chronicler of the beginning of the kingdom.
Since 1547, he has been a participant in all the campaigns of Ivan the Terrible. He pursued an active foreign policy, led the diplomatic preparations for the annexation of the Kazan 5th and Astrakhan khanates. Supervised engineering work during the siege of Kazan (1552). After the annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate, he insisted on continuing the struggle against the Crimean Khanate. He did not agree with the king's decision to start the Livonian War, but still took part in negotiations with Livonia. This position leads to distrust on the part of the king. The death of Empress Anastasia aggravated his situation. Ivan the Terrible believed rumors that she had been poisoned by people associated with Adashev. Adashev was exiled to Derpt under secret supervision and soon died.
Karamzin wrote about A. Adashev: "the beauty of the century and humanity." Immortalized in the monument to the 1000th anniversary of Russia in Novgorod (1862)
14. ARISTOTLE FIORAVANTI (c. 1414-1486)
One of the outstanding architects and engineers of Italy. In 1475 he was invited by Ivan III to build the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin. Even before the construction of the cathedral, he showed Muscovites how to burn excellent bricks, get good lime, visited Vladimir and carefully examined the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir. In 1505 - 1508. built the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, which surpassed Vladimir in beauty, preserved traditions. During the construction of this cathedral, for the first time in Russia, the builders used a compass and a ruler. Fiorovanti taught Moscow architects to lay ties in the walls instead of quickly rotting wooden ones, and also taught how to reduce cross vaults, how to make beautiful double arches with “hanging stone”. Aristotle studied the former white stone walls and towers of the Kremlin and decided to build a red brick Kremlin in their place. He developed a general plan for the construction of the Kremlin. He did not have time to build his plan, but other masters embodied his plan. In 1482, together with the tsar, he took part in the campaign against Novgorod as chief of artillery. He led the construction of a very strong pontoon bridge across the Volkhov River. He tried to return to Italy, but the tsar arrested him for this, but released him, as he was going on a campaign against Tver and he needed an engineer. (1485).
Aristotle Fioravanti is a master who became famous in Russia for only one work, but a work worthy of many others. And it brings together the culture of two nations: Russia and Italy!
15. SIMEON OF POLOTSKY (1629-1680)
Famous Belarusian educator, theologian, poet, playwright, translator.
He studied at the Kiev-Mohyla Collegium. In 1664 he went to Moscow, where Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich instructed him to train young clerks of the secret affairs department. He actively participated in the preparation, and then the holding of the Moscow Council for the deposition of Patriarch Nikon. By authorization of the Eastern Patriarchs, Simeon delivered a speech on the need to raise the level of education in the Muscovite state. In 1667 he was appointed court poet and educator of the king's children.
In addition to mentoring the children of Alexei Mikhailovich, he composes speeches for him, writes solemn announcements and drafts of royal decrees. Simeon Polotsky is a key figure among the initiators of the creation of the first higher education institution in Moscow educational institution– Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Since 1667, during the period of raising the royal children, Simeon wrote several essays especially for them: “Multicolor Vertograd” (a book for reading, a kind of encyclopedia for children), “The Life and Teachings of Christ the Lord and Our God”, “The Book of Brief Questions and Answers of Catechisms”. In The Crown of the Catholic Faith, Polotsky combined all the knowledge that school and reading gave him, starting with the Apocrypha and ending with astrology. These works were for that time the most serious sources of education, which later were used for a long time in the church and secular education of children. Simeon of Polotsk was one of the first Russian-speaking poets. He wrote poetry in Church Slavonic and Polish. He wrote comedies, school dramas for the theater of Alexei Mikhailovich.
He entered Russian history as an educator and as a connector of Russian, Belarusian and Polish cultures.
16. FEDOR MATVEEVICH APRAKSIN (1661-1728)
The famous associate of Peter Alekseevich (First), general - admiral of the Russian fleet. He took part in the amusing games of the future emperor. He was appointed governor of Arkhangelsk, where he built a ship and sent it to trade overseas. In 1697 he was appointed chief overseer of shipbuilding in Voronezh.
Since 1700, he was the head of the Admiralty Department and the Governor of Azov. Heading the Voronezh shipyard, he equips it with docks, locks, rebuilds Azov, creates Taganrog with a harbor for military ships and with the Troitskaya fortress. He took care of the deepening of the shallow mouths of the Don, and the production of hydrographic works. On behalf of the tsar, at various times he managed both the Armory and Yamsky orders and the Mint. In 1708, he repelled an attempt by the Swedes to capture Petersburg, for which he received the title of count. He took part in the siege of Vyborg (led this company) in 1710. After the unsuccessful Prut campaign, according to the Russian-Turkish treaty in 1711, Fyodor Matveyevich was ordered to destroy Taganrog and give Azov to the Turks. He was a multi-talented man, had organizational skills and was devoted to Peter the Great. In 1711-1723. he occupies various positions: he commands the Azov fleet and manages new provinces in the Baltic, takes an active part in naval battles (the battle at Cape Gangut) Successful actions of F.M. Apraksin on the Baltic Sea contributed to the conclusion of favorable terms of the Nishtad Peace for Russia in 1721. During the Persian campaign of 1722-1723. commanded the Caspian flotilla, in 1723 - 1726. - commanded Baltic Fleet. After the death of Peter the Great, he actively continued his reforms as part of the Supreme Privy Council.
He went down not only in the annals of Russian history, but in world history as the winner of the Swedish fleet, as a conscientious executor of the monarch's will.
17. MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH LOMONOSOV (1711-1765)
Scientist naturalist, poet, reformer of the Russian language. His father was a black-haired peasant, he had land and vessels for fishing. In 1731, Mikhail secretly went to Moscow to study with a convoy, and in 1736 he went to Germany to study chemistry and mining. His first poetic and literary-theoretical experiments date back to this time. His discovery in this area is the energetic iambic verse. In 1755, on the initiative of Lomonosov, Moscow University was founded, "open to persons capable of science", and not only to the nobles, as well as a gymnasium under him. In 1748, he created the chemical laboratory of the Academy of Sciences, where he conducted scientific research, including developing the composition of glass, porcelain, and smalt. In the tower of the Kunstkamera he carried out astronomical observations, chemical and physical experiments. He discovered the atmosphere on the planet Venus, described the structure of the Earth, explained the origin of many minerals and minerals. He lays the foundations of physical chemistry, conducts research on atmospheric electricity and gravity, and puts forward the doctrine of light. M.V. Lomonosov revived the art of mosaics and the production of smalt, and together with his students created mosaic paintings.
Lomonosov was the largest poet of the 18th century, the author of poems, tragedies, odes. Created a scientific grammar of the Russian language. The main work of M.V. - "Rhetoric" 1748. in fact, the first anthology of world literature in Russia. He wrote several works on ancient history. He created his own historical concept, which argued with the Norman theory.
The life and work of Mikhail Lomonosov is an example of serving the Motherland, an example of a true patriot and hard worker. He laid the foundations for the prosperity of the State. He is our EVERYTHING!!!
18. ALEXANDER MIKHAILOVICH GORCHAKOV (1798-1883)
His Serene Highness Prince, nobleman, Lyceum friend of Pushkin, Prominent Russian diplomat and statesman. Widely educated, intelligent, seasoned, far-sighted, cunning, purposeful. Here are his psychological traits and interesting life. In 1856-1882 he was the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia. His cautious, avoiding military conflicts, policy is aimed primarily at observing the national interests of Russia. Gorchakov's phrase became widely known: “They say that Russia is angry. No. Russia is not angry. Russia is concentrating."
The main goal of Minister Gorchakov was the abolition of the restrictive articles of the Peace of Paris in 1856. The unification of Germany, the defeat of Austria (1866), the Franco-Prussian war (1870) provided such an opportunity. Gorchakov's circular of 1870 announced that Russia no longer considered itself bound by regulations restricting its rights, because the powers of the West had repeatedly violated the articles of the Treaty of Paris. Western governments recognized Russia's right to keep a navy on the Black Sea and build fortifications on its coast.
With his active assistance in 1873, the "Union of Three Emperors" was concluded between Russia, Germany, Austria. The union ensured peaceful relations in the center of Europe for a long time. So in 1875 it was possible to keep Germany from the second defeat of France, to ensure neutrality in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Being in the diplomatic service, Alexander Mikhailovich sought to strengthen the position of Russia not only on its borders. He provided diplomatic support for the expansion of Russian influence in Central Asia, DURING the American Civil War, defended the northerners and the idea of US integrity, which helped establish friendly relations between the two countries.
At the end of the Russian-Turkish war in 1878, the San Stefano Treaty was signed, which fully met the interests of both Russia and the Balkan peoples. BUT his conditions were not reviewed in Berlin. Russia was in complete isolation and forced to make concessions. But still managed to maintain the independence of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Northern Bulgaria. Gorchakov himself called this congress: "the blackest page in his career."
As a minister, he changed the structure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was engaged in the systematization of the archive. The reform of the diplomatic service carried out by him was fully preserved until 1917, and its main features are still in effect. His honorable retirement followed in 1882.
The diplomatic successes of Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov made him one of the key figures in world politics.
19. DMITRY ALEKSEEVICH MILYUTIN (1816-1912)
The most prominent minister of war and the last general - field marshal of Russia.
He came from a poor noble family. He graduated from the Imperial Military Academy with a silver medal. Early showed a penchant for military-theoretical analysis. From the late 1830s to the 1850s, he wrote and published the following works: “Manual for the occupation, defense and attack of forests, buildings, villages and local objects”, “First experiments on military statistics”, “Description of military operations in 1839 in Northern Dagestan", a five-volume "History of the War between Russia and France in the reign of Emperor Paul I in 1799", where the activities of A.V. Suvorov as a commander, psychologist and educator of soldiers.
In 1856 D.A. Milyutin appointed Chief of Staff Caucasian army. It was to him that the army owed the successful completion of the Caucasian War.
Since 1861, he took the post of Minister of War and worked there for twenty years. He considered overcoming the military backwardness of Russia as the main goal of his activity. To do this, they began to implement reforms supported by the emperor. The term has been shortened military service, corporal punishment was abolished, measures were taken to improve the life of soldiers and teach them to be literate. The main military reforms were: the replacement of recruitment kits with all-class military service (1874), the creation of military districts and the creation of a command and control system in wartime, the rearmament of the army with rifled small arms and artillery weapons, the development of new military regulations, the replacement of cadet corps with military gymnasiums, the establishment of cadet schools, the establishment of officers' meetings and other forms of community in the army. The reforms had opponents, and Milyutin had to convince them.
Russian - Turkish war 1877-1878. confirmed the correctness of the reforms.
As a member of the State Council, Dmitry Alekseevich actively influenced all spheres of Russia's domestic and foreign policy. He was a supporter of liberal beliefs. The assassination of Alexander II and the accession to the throne of his son led to the curtailment of reforms. In May 1881, he was forced to resign. For his many years of service, he was awarded all Russian orders up to and including St. Andrew the First-Called.
Many recognized that under Milyutin the military structure of the Russian state changed in a short time and that Russia went further in its military reforms than all the leading world powers. And in this I see an assessment of the activities of Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin.
20. Historical portrait of Rurik.
Prince. Varangian. In 862, he was invited by the Priilmensky Slavs and Krivichi to reign in the Novgorod lands. He ruled there until 679. Goals - within the principality - to restore order and conduct court according to custom and prevent excesses between the tribes, turn the lands of Novgorod into a competitor to the southern lands, and raise the authority of the principality among neighbors. He united the entire north and northwest of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric lands under his command. Novgorod turned into a powerful center, which became a rival of South Russia. In Novgorod, the power of Slavic immigrants from the Southern Baltic was strengthened. After his reign, Novgorod strengthened and a historical confrontation between the two East Slavic centers is brewing.
21. Prophetic Oleg.
Relative of Rurik, his combatant, the first prince Kievan Rus. The years of his reign are 882-912. Its goals: Unification of two ancient Russian state centers into a single state, raising its authority in the then world, through the recognition of the right of Russian merchants to trade duty-free within Byzantium, as well as strengthening and protecting lands in the steppe direction. He managed to do the following: in 882, through deceit and force, he united the South and North under the rule of Rurik's supporters, Oleg took the title of Grand Duke, i.e. prince of all princes. The rulers of individual Russian principalities became his tributaries, vassals, in 907, 911 favorable agreements were concluded with Byzantium for Russian merchants, but he failed to defeat the Ugrians and, under the agreement of 898, the Russians paid tribute to them, and failed to gain a foothold in the Black Sea region. However, he went down in history as a wise and reasonable ruler-founder of the Old Russian state.
22. Igor Stary.
912 - 945 years of his reign. Prince of Kievan Rus. The goals of his reign were to preserve the lands by suppressing the separatist moods of some princes, maintaining the established order of vassal relations within the country, protecting lands in the south from nomads, expanding borders, restoring relations with Byzantium, as the leader of the then world. Results: The Drevlyans were again conquered and taxed, the prince managed to negotiate with the Pechenegs - peace was concluded, a new Russian colony appeared on the Taman Peninsula, and now Russian possessions came to Khazaria and the colonies of Byzantium in the Crimea. He made two campaigns against Byzantium (941 - failure, 944 - an agreement on peaceful and allied relations. There was no exact accounting of the tribute that was paid inside the country, and this led to arbitrariness and robbery - the prince himself became a victim of which. Prince Igor continued the work of Oleg and by right considered to be a prominent ruler.
23. Duchess Olga.
The years of her reign are 945 - 962. The princess, wife of Prince Igor and mother of Prince Svyatoslav, ruled the state in his absence and infancy. The goals facing the princess: revenge for the death of Igor and the assertion of her power, changing the system of gathering polyudye, which led to the discontent of subordinates, confirming the alliances concluded by Igor with Byzantium, as well as protecting the borders from possible invasions from the east. The results of her activities: she avenged the death of the prince, and also, in order to avoid new discontent, she changed the system of collecting polyudya - lessons (tribute norms) were introduced and the places of its collection - graveyards - were determined. During a trip to Constantinople in 957, she confirmed the previous treaties, and this was - in fact, an alliance against Khazaria and the Arab Caliphate. Here she became a Christian. It was her attempt to turn Russia from pagan morality to Christian. Her merit to the state is that she began to create a system of taxing the population and tried to change the mores of society through Christianity. Her name is among the first princes of Kyiv, who through their activities created and strengthened the state.
24. Prince Svyatoslav.
The years of the reign of Svyatoslav 962 - 972. Ruler of Kievan Rus. The goals and objectives facing him: to continue the work of his parents (Igor and Olga) to unite the East Slavic lands and centralize the management system, expand the borders of the state, protect it and raise its authority among the leading countries of that period. Its results: a tribal union of the Vyatichi entered Russia, crushed the power of Khazaria, thereby opening the way to the Caspian Sea for Russian merchants, introduced a system of governorship in the lands, expanded the borders of the state to the Danube, waged wars with Byzantium, which was dissatisfied with the fact that it had there was such an actively-aggressive neighbor. (970.971) Byzantium during this period pays tribute to the Russians, but enters into an agreement with the Pechenegs. entered world history like Alexander the Great of Eastern Europe for amazing results in foreign policy.
25. Prince Vladimir (Red Sun).
The years of his reign - 980 - 1015. The ruler of Kievan Rus. The goals of his reign: strengthening the power of the prince, restoring the unity of the Russian land, as well as protecting the lands from nomads who constantly attacked the southern principalities, and changing the vector in foreign policy. The results of his activities: In 980, the Russian North again defeated the Russian South and Prince Vladimir became the sole ruler of Russia, suppressed the resistance of the rebel tribes, and sent his numerous sons as governors to the lands of the state. He made peace with the Bulgarians, entered into a struggle with Poland for border lands in the Transcarpathia region, where he founded a new city, wages wars with the Pechenegs, but for the most effective protection from the nomads, on the left bank of the Dnieper, he builds fortresses and four lines of defense, equipped with a light warning system. To strengthen personal power, he conducts a pagan reform (a pantheon of pagan gods is created with Perun at the head), but it did not bring the desired result. In 988, Russia adopted the Christian faith, which ultimately strengthened the power of the prince and finally brought Russia and Byzantium closer together. Vladimir is the Baptist of Russia, and this is the significance of his reign, because. this brought the country to a new level of development of civilization.
26. Yaroslav the Wise.
The years of his reign are 1019 - 1054. Prince of Kievan Rus. The goals facing him: the restoration of the unity of Russia after the turmoil, the strengthening of the country's governance system, the expansion of territory, in foreign policy, the strengthening of relations with neighbors and the defense of their interests in the markets of Byzantium, as well as the protection of lands from nomads. His results: In 1019 he gets rid of Svyatopolk the Accursed and begins to rule in Kyiv. He strengthened the system of government of the country, in major cities imprisoned his sons and demanded unquestioning obedience, he himself became an autocrat. He put into effect the first written code of laws in Russia - "Russian Truth". Builds magnificent cathedrals (Sofia of Kyiv 1037) as symbols princely power, schools, libraries, icon-painting workshops are opening. He founded new cities - Yuriev, Yaroslavl. Builds excellent relations with neighbors through - danastic marriages. In 1036, he completed his father's many years of efforts in the fight against the Pechenegs (smashed at the walls of Kyiv). In 1043, good relations with Byzantium escalated. The conflict ended with the signing of peace and another dynastic marriage. Yaroslav bequeathed that henceforth the eldest in the family would be the Grand Duke in Russia. He failed to get rid of the patriarchal worldview. But under him, Russia turned into a great power, which was respected in the medieval world of Europe.
27. Vladimir Monomakh.
The years of his reign are 1113-1125. Ruler of the Kievan state. Prince. The main directions of its activities and results: Domestic policy: 1- maintaining the unity of the country while maintaining the independence of the principalities, 1097 - The Lyubech Congress of Princes decided that everyone owns his fatherland, but they all fight with an external enemy together. 2- Having become the prince of Kyiv, he sought to maintain order in the country and prevent unrest among the poorest sections of the population. To do this, introduced the Charter. The purpose of this legal document is to protect combatants and boyars from the wrath of the lower classes. 3-Maintaining the economy of smerds as the economic basis of the principality. Foreign policy. 1. Made trips to the Czech Republic in order to expand the borders. 2- Actively defends the southern borders from the nomads.: 1080 years - defended the Chernigov lands from the nomads, made campaigns against the Torks, defeating them forever. He was a thunderstorm for the steppes, he inflicted defeats on their territory. 3- He was the initiator and participant in the Crusade against the pagan Polovtsy in 1111, which was successful. He went down in history as a defender of Russia, a reformer. He managed to recreate the unity of the country for a short time.
28. Mstislav the Great - 1125-1132
Son of Vladimir Monomakh. Kyiv prince. He continued his policy of strengthening the state. The main directions of its activity and its results: Internal policy. 1- Strengthening the personal power of the prince, because after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the tradition of transferring power to the eldest in the year was violated. Mstislav was the eldest son of Monomakh, but the boyars, dissatisfied with this, did not dare to revolt. 2-Develops the existing system of government of the country (legal documents are in force - Truth of the Yaroslavichs and the Charter). 3-Trade and culture are actively developing. Foreign policy: 1-Protection of lands from nomad raids. Managed to repel the invasion of the Polovtsy.2- The Polovtsy were pushed back (as a result of campaigns) beyond the Don and Volga. 3- The north-western borders were protected from the raids of Lithuanians and Chuds. For his deeds he was nicknamed the Great, because - his reign was fruitful, albeit short-lived. These were the short years of the unity of Russia.
29. Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157)
The son of Vladimir Monomakh, Prince of Rostov-Suzdal, but actively strive to be on the throne of Kiev. The main directions of its activity and results: Domestic policy. 1- Expansion of the lands of the Rostov-Suzdal principality due to the annexation of the lands of the Mordovians, Burtases. 2- New cities appear- 1147 - Moscow, Zvenigorod, Dmitrov. 3- Agriculture, crafts, culture, this is facilitated by fertile soils and a good climate. Foreign policy: 1- Peaceful relations with the Polovtsy through marriages. 2- Strives to seize the Volga trade route, fights with trade rivals - Novgorod and Volga Bulgaria. 3- He actively fights for the Kyiv throne and by the mid-1150s he succeeded, but not for long. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, the Rostov-Suzdal principality became one of the most powerful in Russia.
30. Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174)
After the death of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrey Yuryevich (Bogolyubsky) sat on the throne in the Rostov-Suzdal land. Prince of Kyiv. He was chosen by the boyars, because. they hoped that an independent and decisive prince would help them finally free themselves from Kyiv. The main directions of its activity and results. Domestic policy: 1- Strengthening personal power. He fought against the self-willed boyars, removed his brothers from business and moved the capital to Vladimir, but he himself lived in a palace in the village of Bogolyubovo. Surrounded himself with junior combatants. Strives to become an autocrat in North-Eastern Russia.2- Does not strive to become a great Kievan prince. Disdainful of the old Russian capital. Foreign policy: 1- Expands the boundaries of its possessions: successfully fights with the Volga Bulgaria, conquered the Mordovian lands. 2- Relations with Novgorod are developing. He died at the hands of conspirators-boyars. He went down in history as a bright personality who did a lot for the development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality as the future successor of Kievan Rus.
31. Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212)
The son of Yuri Dolgoruky, received the throne in Vladimir-Suzdal land according to custom and with the support of the squad. Ruler of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The main directions of its activity and results: Domestic policy. 1- Development of the process of centralization. Fights with the boyars for influence and relies on the urban strata and the maturing nobility. The first of the northeastern rulers took the title of Grand Duke. 2- trade and cities are actively developing. 3- Vladimir-Suzdal land is experiencing a real flowering at this time. Foreign policy: 1- Expansion of the territory - possession of lands in the Principality of Kiev. 2- Expansion of the sphere of influence on neighbors- 1183 - a brilliant campaign against the Volga Bulgaria - the Mordovian lands are now under the influence of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince, subjection to the influence of the Ryazan principality. 3- The emergence of confrontation with the Galicia-Volyn principality on the issue of unification of all Russian lands. The name of Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest is associated with the flourishing of the Vladimir-Suzdal land as a leading principality in a fragmented state.
32. Alexander Nevskiy. Prince Vladimirsky from 1252-1263
Alexander Yaroslavich from 1228 - Prince of Novgorod. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy. 1- Revival of the economy: cities are being strengthened, new temples are being built, 2- protecting the economy of the principality from being defeated by the Mongols. In 1257, he helped the Mongols conduct a population census, suppressing resistance - this saved the land from ruin. 3- The results of the census give him the opportunity to hide part of the Horde exit, thereby saving funds for the restoration of Russia, but if favorable factors developed, then he supported the anti-Horde protests of the people . Foreign policy: 1- Relations with the Horde- A supporter of a cautious, balanced far-sighted policy with this state. He hates them, but is afraid to go into conflict with them. He himself suppresses pockets of resistance to the Mongols in the country, if he assumes that in response to this they will send punitive detachments to Russia. 2- Protects the territorial integrity of the state. Severely punishes Novgorodians for their separatism, but helps them in the fight against foreign invaders, so in 1256 he himself led troops and defeated the fortresses of the Swedes.3 Prince Alexander is a brilliant diplomat who has friends and authority in the Horde. So after the unsuccessful uprising of the Russians, crushed by Nevryuy, (Nevryuev's army), he begged for forgiveness for his brother Andrei, and he returned to Russia. In 1262, Khan Berke ordered to bring Russian soldiers to participate in a campaign against Iran. Alexander went there himself to pray for his soldiers, possibly motivating them to go to the Baltic states to fight the crusaders. And he succeeded. Descendants remember him as a true patriot of the Russian land, an intelligent commander, a competent politician and a successful diplomat.
3.3 Ivan Kalita (1325-1340)
Prince of Moscow. The main directions of his activity and its results: Domestic policy: 1- Development of a centralized system of collecting tribute - Ivan Kalita received from the Horde the right to collect tribute from all Russian lands, so he severely punished those who underpaid it, while hiding part of it in Moscow. 2- He did not encourage luxury and wastefulness, he was modest in everyday life, but generous with the poor. 3- Moscow is turning into the church center of Russian lands. He often invited Metropolitan Peter, who lived in Vladimir, to stay in Moscow, and the next metropolitan already lived in Moscow permanently. Foreign policy: 1- Weakening of Tver, Moscow's rival. In 1327, when a rebellion broke out in Tver against the Horde, Ivan Kalita offered his services to the khan to suppress the rebellion. 2- Strengthening the position of the Moscow principality among other lands Northeast Russia. Collecting tribute from all over the principality for the Horde, he hid part of it for Moscow. 3 Expansion of the limits of the Moscow principality. Where money did not work, he used violence: the principalities of Rostov, Galicia, Uglich, Belozersk were added to the principality of Moscow. The rise of Moscow, the strengthening and expansion of the Moscow principality is associated with the name of Ivan Kalita. The title of the Grand Duke of Vladimir is now firmly in the hands of the Moscow princes, and his inheritance went through the direct male line - from father to son - and this is thanks to Ivan Kalita.
34. Dmitry Ivanovich (Donskoy) 1359-1389
Son of Ivan the Beautiful (Red). Prince of Moscow. The main directions of its activity and its results: Domestic policy 1- Strengthening the sole power of the prince not by force, but by the authority and consistency of politics. 2- Development of the economy, construction of fortresses, new walls around the Moscow Kremlin. 3-Development of trade, crafts, culture. (In 1382, during the siege of the Kremlin by Khan Tokhtamysh, Muscovites demolished valuable books in the Kremlin temples "in large numbers"). 4- The idea of unity to fight the Mongols is popular in society. 5- The economic power of the state is increasing - since 1361, the payment of the Horde exit is temporarily stopped. Foreign policy: 1- Subjugation of Tver. In 1375, a campaign against Tver was organized by 20 princes of North-Eastern Russia. After that, Tver recognized itself as the "young brother" of the Moscow prince. 2 - The struggle with a rival represented by Lithuania for the unification of Russian lands. Lithuania repeatedly goes on campaigns to Moscow (1368, 1370) together with Tver. But unsuccessfully, and after the victory on the Kulikovo field, the Lithuanians go to an alliance with Moscow. 3- Search for a strong ally in the fight against Livonia and Lithuania. An agreement was concluded with Novgorod for a joint struggle. 4- The period of open opposition of forces to the Horde. Termination of tribute payments (1361, 1374) An open and successful clash with the Horde in battle: 1365 - the defeat of Prince Tagai by the Ryazans, 1378 - the battle on the Vozha River, 1380 - the Battle of Kulikovo. BUT the forces were still not enough and therefore for many years Russia would be under the rule of the Horde. Prince Dmitry Ivanovich went down in history as a unifier of Russian lands under the banner of the struggle for independence, as a true patriot and winner.
35. Basil 1 (1389-1425)
Son of Dmitry Ivanovich. Prince of Moscow. He received the throne by will. From the age of 13, he helps his father in the conduct of state affairs and successfully fulfills his father's instructions (he goes to the Horde to get a label for him). The main directions of its activity and its results: Domestic policy: 1-The revival of the country's economy, although still, it was necessary to pay access to the Horde. and tranquility. 3 - large boyar estates of serving boyars appear. 4- Trade and crafts are actively developing Foreign policy: 1- Expansion of the borders of the state. The principality of Nizhny Novgorod is redeemed in the Horde, the boyars of which agreed to this step, Ryazan recognized itself as a vassal of the Moscow prince, and Tver turned into a faithful ally. 2- Relations with the Horde. The stronger Moscow became, the stronger were the attacks on it from the Horde, but after a series of clashes between Tokhtamysh and Timur (1395), its fury weakened. BUT in 1408, the Edigeev army came to Russia, causing the ruin of the lands. 3- From the depths of Asia, a new danger approached Russia - This is the ruler of Samarkand Timur. He only reached Yelets and turned back. 3- The union of Vitovt and Tokhtamysh against Moscow threatened its calmness, but after their defeat on the river Vorksla (1399) from the Golden Horde Khan, the union broke up. 4-Relations with Lithuania. Vasily Dmitrievich himself was the son-in-law of Prince Vitovt. But Lithuania is fighting for the right to own free Russian lands, and here its interests intersect with the interests of Russia. Vitovt seeks to seize the lands of Pskov and Novgorod, seeks to seize Moscow. From 1406-1408 three times father-in-law and son-in-law were ready to attack each other, but they did without bloodshed. There was no decisive advantage. 5- Fight against the threat from the Teutonic Order. 1410 - the combined forces (Poles, Lithuanians and Russians) stopped the onslaught of the Germans to the east. In all this difficult struggle, Russia withstood and followed its historical path. This is also the merit of the Moscow Prince Vasily the First.
36. Vasily II (Dark) 1425-1462
He was the son of Vasily the First and received the throne from his father at the age of 10. Prince of Moscow. But his uncle, who was the eldest in the family, did not agree with this. The main directions of its activity and its results: internal policy 1. The struggle for the centralization of the country through the elimination of appanages. The dynastic war (1425-1453) ended with the victory of Vasily the Dark. 2- Strengthening personal power, suppression of the Shemyaka rebellion. 3- The revival of the lands devastated by the internal war. 4- development of crafts, trade and culture. Foreign policy: 1- Aggravation of relations with the Horde. In 1444, the Horde captured Nizhny Novgorod, Murom, Kolomna. Vasily II himself with his close associates was captured, but was ransomed. But the Horde had already weakened and could not threaten Russia for a long time. 2- The emergence of a fragment of the Horde in the face of the independent Kazan Khanate was a new direction in foreign policy. 3- Restoration of ties that weakened during the years of the dynastic war. The alliance with Tver was strengthened, the influence of the grand ducal power in Novgorod was restored. Vasily the Dark entered Russian history as a courageous ruler who sacredly preserved the unity of the earth in the difficult struggle between the old and the new.
37. Ivan III (1462-1505)
Ivan the Third throne received by will from Vasily the Dark. Prince. Ruler. The main directions of his activity and its results: Domestic policy: 1- Ivan had to settle relations with his brothers. Fearing an internal war, he left behind them small principalities - allotments given to them by will. 2- Strengthening the princely power. In 1488, at the reception of foreign ambassadors, he called himself the sovereign of all Russia, symbols of power appeared, and the state positioned itself as the heir to the Old Russian state. Having become a widower, he married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Zoe Palaiologos. 3-Centralization of state power. Builds up new system governance of the country, the Boyar Duma appears, the Treasury, the Palace, orders, the first code of laws united Russia"Sudebnik" in 1497. 4 - The country's economy is developing rapidly, new markets have appeared in new lands, although foreign policy difficulties prevented this. 5- Russia is the center of Orthodoxy. After the fall of Constantinople, it is the largest Orthodox state in Europe. Foreign policy: 1- Expansion of the country's territory - subjugation of Novgorod, restriction of its freedoms (1478), in 1485 the Tver principality was included in the Russian state, the Vyatka region also became part of the state. 2- Relations with Lithuania. As a result of the war between these states in 1500-1503. such cities departed to Russia - Chernigov, Bryansk, Gomel, Rylsk. 3- Relations with the Horde. Since 1478, tribute to the Horde has not been paid. In 1480 Russia was freed from the Horde yoke. 4- Relations with the khanates that separated from the Horde. These khanates were located either on the territory of Russia (Kasimov) or on the border, but they all demanded tribute from Russia. Russia tried to neutralize the most dangerous khanates through Russian proteges in power. (Kazan Khanate) 1487 It was under Ivan the Third that Russia freed itself from the yoke and appeared on the international arena as a strong and sovereign state.
38. Vasily III (1505 - 1533)
Grand Duke, ruler. The main directions of his activity and its results: Domestic policy. 1- Completion of the processes of unity of the country and the centralization of its government. Under him, orders were formed into an effective management system, there is an advisory body - the Boyar Duma, governors, bureaucracy was born, and with it bribery. 2-Fight with the owners of the destinies (brothers). Their rights are reduced, they are forbidden to start a family, so as not to continue specific orders in Russia. 3- Strengthening autocratic power. Everyone in society considered themselves servants of the great sovereign. Fight against localism. Foreign policy. 1- Expanding the boundaries. Under him, Pskov and the Ryazan principality were annexed to Moscow (1510, 1520) 2- Opposition to Lithuania, which was in alliance against Moscow with the Livonian Order and the Crimean Khanate. The troops of Basil the Third went on the offensive and in 1514 captured Smolensk. 3- Tensions with the Kazan Khanate, which influenced the water trade route to the Caspian Sea. The unification of the Russian lands was completed, the territory of a single Russian state was formed. And this was facilitated by the personal qualities of the first leaders of the state - powerful, strong-willed Ivan III and his follower Vasily III.
39. Ivan IV the Terrible - (1533 - 1584)
The main directions of its activity and its results. Tsar. Domestic policy: 1- Strengthening the personal power of Ivan IV. In 1547 he was solemnly married to the kingdom. Now he was called the king, Russia becomes a kingdom, and Moscow - a reigning city. From 1565-1572, he waged a fierce struggle with the opposition (oprichnina). 2- Development of a centralized state. The system of orders was finally formed, reforms of local and central government were carried out, archery regiments appeared, the composition of the Boyar Duma increased, a new set of laws “Sudebnik” (1550) was developed, Zemsky Sobors were assembled in 1549 - this is the beginning of estate representation in Russia. 3- There is an increase in the fund of free lands for distribution to the nobility as the most reliable support for the king. This is due to new lands in the east and southeast. There was an unsuccessful attempt to confiscate church lands at a church council in 1551. 4- The economy is actively developing in the country, but after the oprichnina and the Livonian War, the process of enslaving the peasants begins (1581 - reserved years). 5- All the years of his reign, economic expansion is observed. Industrialists and merchants are actively moving to the east, especially after the elimination of the threat from the “fragments of the Horde”. 6- Development of culture, further expansion of its horizons and scope. In 1654, the first printing house, Domostroy, was opened - a set of rules in everyday life and society, educated assistants to the king appeared. Foreign policy: 1-Protection of the Volga trade route from the raids of the Tatars. Liquidation of the Kazan Khanate (1552), Astrakhan Khanate (1556). 2- Development of vassal relations with the peoples of the Caucasus and the Volga region (Kabarda, Bashkirs). In the face of Russia, he saw a protector. 3- The struggle for Russia's access to the Baltic Sea. The Livonian War (1558-1583) could not solve this problem. 4- Protection of the southern borders from the raids of the Crimean Tatars. For this, a cutting line was built from the Bryansk forests to the Oka (600 km.). 5- Expansion of the borders of the state in the east (annexation of Siberia in 1582). Ivan IV, nicknamed the Terrible, established a brutal personal dictatorship, ruined the country with long wars and threatened the existence of the Rurik dynasty.
40. Fedor Ivanovich (1584-1598)
Son of Emperor Ivan the Terrible. Tsar. From birth, sickly and pious, he had no children. For this reason, he often fell under the influence of favorites. The baht of his wife Irina, Boris Godunov, stands out in particular. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1-Further enslavement of the peasants. Now the regime of protected years has spread to the whole country. 2- The development and defense of the border southern counties. Fugitive peasants are fleeing in the south, so in 1597 fixed years were introduced, the period of investigation was set at five years - in this way the population is formed there. 3- Increasing the tax burden. So in the 1580s, taxes increased by 1.5 times. 4- Development and development of the annexed territories. Cities are being built on the Volga - Samara, Tsaritsyn, Saratov. 5 - Expansion of the market. Furs, fish, handicrafts are supplied from Western Siberia to the European part of the country. Foreign policy: 1- Relations with Livonia. Having abandoned the conquered lands during the Livonian War, Russia appears to them as a weak state. 2- Relations with Poland. After the war, Poland returned Velikie Luki to us. Both sides are preparing for a new war, because. Yam-Zapolsky truce only for 10 years (since 1582). 3- Relations with Sweden. According to the Truce of Plus (since 1583), we lose Narva and part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland. 4- The threat from the Crimean Khanate remains. The years of the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich were quiet and calm, but after his death the Rurik dynasty ceased to exist.
41. Boris Godunov (1598-1605)
Tsar elected by the Zemsky Sobor. After the death of Fyodor Ivanovich, a situation developed when it was possible to move from autocratic rule to collective. The boyars decided that power in the country should be transferred to the Boyar Duma. But through cunning and far-sighted calculation, power ended up in the hands of Boris Godunov. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1 - Strengthening personal power. He distributed the salaries of the nobles previously delayed, promoted many in ranks, encouraged trade, bestowed benefits on merchants, and privileges on the church. 2- Actively fought against bribery, excesses of officials and venality of judges (corporal punishment and demonstration to society of those found guilty of bribes). 3- Boris Godunov was an active champion of education. Under him, the German settlement flourished in Moscow, printing houses were built, noble children were sent to study abroad.4 Active construction and improvement of the capital is underway. Stone trading shops were erected, the bell tower of Ivan the Great was built, new pavements, water supply in the Kremlin were laid. 5- Fight with possible rivals for the throne. Fyodor Nikitich Romanov was tonsured a monk (Filaret), and his children Mikhail and Tatyana were thrown into prison. 6- An attempt to weaken the impact of a natural disaster that hit the country (1601). Fixed prices for bread, distribution of money and sale of bread at low prices from his personal stocks, persecution and punishment of speculators and resellers were introduced. St. George's Day has been restored since 1601. Decree of 1603 to recognize the serfs expelled from the yards and deprived of food as free. Foreign policy: 1- Fight against the army of the impostor False Dmitry. 1604,.1605,. Part of the royal governor went over to his side. This fight has been lost. 2- Relations with Poland at that time could not be good, because Poland supported the impostor. 3- The existing danger from the south in the face of the Crimean Khanate was supplemented by the danger from the bands from the Zaporizhzhya Sich and the Don, who also supported the impostor, but did not disdain outright robbery. Boris Godunov went down in history as the chosen tsar, as the founder of a new but short-lived Godunov dynasty (his son Fyodor ruled for only 1.5 months). Undoubtedly, an outstanding political figure.
42. False DmitryI (1605-1606)
The main directions of its activity and its results. Tsar. Domestic policy: 1- Settlement of relations with the Boyar Duma. He confirmed her powers, returned the exiled boyars, promised to preserve their estates. 2- trying to get rid of the Polish and Cossack detachments that discredited him. All serfs, peasants and townspeople were dismissed from the army. 3- Tries to please the nobility. He released the slaves who fell into bondage during the years of famine, but increased the terms of the conscripted years, and retained unshakable serfdom. 4- Continues the fight against bribery. Communities are allowed to deliver the collected taxes themselves, bypassing officials, to the treasury. 5- Was the bearer of the new European orders. Proclaimed freedom of religion. Foreign policy: 1- Relations with Poland. From the first days of his reign, he showed himself to be an adherent of Russian interests and Orthodoxy, and he did not fulfill his promises to the Poles regarding the distribution of land. More than once he spoke out for the return of the western lands captured by the Commonwealth to Russia. 2- A campaign was being prepared against the Crimean Khanate. 3- He advocated the active development of trade relations with Europe. Merchants are allowed to travel abroad freely. False Dmitry tried to do the impossible - to ensure the interests of all segments of the population, which led to the tragedy. Undoubtedly, an outstanding personality.
43. Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610)
Chosen Russian Tsar. His unattractive appearance is seen especially in the story of Tsarevich Dmitry (1591), when he confirmed that the Tsarevich had stabbed himself, but when False Dmitry appeared, he showed that the Tsarevich had escaped. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Struggle against the centers of the uprising in the South and South-West of the country. Bolotnikovites were pushed back to Kaluga. 2- Economic development of the country. After the uprising, the country was in a critical situation: ruin, impoverishment, tax arrears, a decrease in the population. But the civil war continued. 3- The authority of the new impostor who formed the government is strengthening in the country. (In the village of Tushino). But soon the people become disillusioned with him, and the civil war develops into a national liberation war. Foreign policy: 1- Relations with Sweden. To save their power and the country, they concluded an agreement on assistance between Russia and Sweden. (1609). But having not received money from Shuisky, the Swedish detachments, which initially pressed the Tushinos, begin to rob the Russians. This is met with resistance from the Russians. 2- Relations with Poland. The Polish king severed relations with Russia and began hostilities. The siege of Smolensk began. BUT the leaders of the Russian Tushins (Filaret) decided to oppose Shuisky as an insolvent king of the Polish heir and invited him to the Russian throne. This proposal was a continuation of the boyar line to limit the autocratic power of the monarch. The Moscow boyars, together with the Tushino people, organized a conspiracy against Shuisky. On July 17, 1610, he was deposed, tonsured a monk and handed over to the Poles. At the peak of the turmoil in Russia, a different personality was required. But Shuisky did not meet these requirements.
44. Mikhail Romanov (1613-1645)
After the terrible years of turmoil in Russian society, an understanding has developed that only autocratic rule is capable of rallying society around itself. Mikhail Romanov is the founder of a new Russian dynasty - the Romanovs. Tsar. The main directions of his activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- The policy of appeasing the country. There was not a single fall. All retained their former positions, lands and ranks, many were granted new lands and ranks. 2- Revival of the country's governance system. Old orders were recreated, new ones appeared. The system of local government was changed: instead of governors, governors were sent for a year or two. 3- Revival of autocracy. In the early years, Mikhail relied on the Zemsky Sobors, which met frequently, and the Boyar Duma. After the appearance of Filaret, who became the actual co-ruler, the Boyar Duma turned into an executor of the will of the monarch. 4- Replenishment of the impoverished treasury. A number of new taxes were introduced, wealthy merchants were asked to lend money, and the church was asked to contribute so that the population would donate food to support the army. Foreign policy: 1 - Relations with Poland. The Polish king did not recognize the new Russian tsar, but considered his son to be the real Russian tsar. In 1613, Russian regiments liberated some cities and approached Smolensk. In 1617 Vladislav's troops laid siege to the Russian capital. In 1618, a truce was signed in the village of Deulino for 14.5 years. Smolensk and the right to be the Russian Tsar remained with Vladislav. From 1632-1634 Smolensk war. It ended with the signing of the Polyanovsky peace, according to which Smolensk remained with Poland, but they refused the rights to the Russian throne. 2- Relations with Sweden. Since 1613, they have captured a number of Russian cities and besieged Pskov. But the local population strongly resists. In 1617 the Peace of Stolbov was signed. Under this treaty, Russia in the Baltics was returned to the borders of the late 15th century. We have lost the coast of the Baltic. 3- Relations with the Crimean Khanate. In 1637, the Cossacks captured the Turkish fortress of Azov. This was unexpected for the Moscow government. The Cossacks offered to take Azov under their arm. But Russia was not ready for a war with Turkey and Crimea. In 1642, an order was issued to leave Azov. After the turmoil, Russia is reborn thanks to the deeds and cares of such a person as Tsar Mikhail Romanov was.
45. Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676)
Tsar, ruler of Russia. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Strengthening the autocratic royal power. The role of the Zemsky Sobors is less noticeable, so the Zemsky Sobor of 1645 gathered to kiss the cross (to take an oath to the new king). Boyar Duma, governors are obedient to the king. In 1649, the Code was adopted - a code of laws. 2- The development of the country's economy. Its basis is agriculture. New lands are plowed up, the center of the country has come to life. The economy is developing in an extensive way. The formation of the all-Russian market is observed and the specialization of the regions is determined. New phenomena appear in industry - this is the emergence of manufactories. Serfdom is intensifying and this leads to spontaneous riots (Salt riot in 1648, Copper riot in 1662), which were suppressed. 3- Strengthening internal order and ensuring peace in society. The fight against troublemakers, participants in the uprising of S. Razin (1669-1671). It was suppressed by the force of the army. 4- Strengthening the personal power of the king. The carried out church reform split the society, but also strengthened the absolute power of the monarch; the rise of the king emphasized the rise of the country. 5- Strengthening the defense of the country. A combat-ready army was created. Professional troops appeared - these are soldier, reiter and dragoon regiments. New weapons appeared - muskets and carbines. Foreign policy: 1-Conserved friendly relations with Sweden. But during the Russian-Polish war, we decided to return access to the sea - and unsuccessful. In 1661, the Peace of Cardis was concluded. Under the terms of this peace, we have not changed the situation in the Baltic - we have no access to the sea. 2- A good relationship with Holland. There are economic negotiations about the position of Dutch merchants in Russia. 3- Relations with Poland. We are preparing for war and looking for allies. Negotiations have been held in France and Austria on this issue. In 1654 Left-Bank Ukraine voluntarily became part of Russia. And this led to a war with Poland from 1654-1667. According to the Andrusovo truce, Russia regained Smolensk, the Siversky lands and secured the entire Left-Bank Ukraine. 4- Relations with England. Our merchants compete with the British in the domestic market. 5- The situation on the southern borders. Neutrality with Turkey, friendly relations with Persia. In 1655, the Kalmyk taishas swore allegiance to the Russian Tsar and promised to help with cavalry for the opportunity to roam the lands between the Yaik and the Volga. Alexei Mikhailovich entered the history of Russia as a monarch who did everything necessary for the development and strengthening of the country.
46. Fedor Alekseevich (1676 - 1682)
The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1-There is an absolute monarchy. The tsar often signs decrees without consulting the Boyar Duma, a new supreme body is created - the Punishment Chamber, which is subordinate only to the tsar. In 1682, the tsar decided to abolish localism: "To serve without a place where the great sovereign will indicate to someone." 2- The reform of the army begins. Nine territorial districts are being created, regiments of the new system have appeared, the principles of recruiting the army have changed (nobles from the estates supply adequate people). Nobles who evaded regimental service were deprived of their estates. 3- Tax reform. A single tax was introduced - archery money, it was calculated on a household basis and depending on wealth. Arrears were forgiven, but those who evaded were met with severe punishment. 4- Local self-government was reformed. The power of the governors in the field has increased, but so has their responsibility. Foreign policy: 1- Relations with Poland. At this time, we have an alliance with Poland against Turkey, which claims Ukrainian and South Russian lands. But in 1677, the Poles went over to the side of Turkey. 2- Relations with Turkey. The Chigirin campaigns (1677, 1678) were unsuccessful for us. In 1681, peace was made with Turkey for 20 years. It recognizes Russia's right to the Left-Bank Ukraine and Kyiv. 3- During the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich, the country was turning towards Western culture, which contributed to raising the country's international prestige. The years of the reign of Fedor Alekseevich became an important period in the history of the country. They largely paved the way for the future reforms of Peter I.
47. Princess Sofia Alekseevna (1682-1689)
After the death of Fyodor Alekseevich, his two brothers, the feeble-minded Ivan (16 years old) and the healthy, energetic Peter (10 years old), had the right to the throne. Sagittarius, having raised a rebellion by force of arms, erected Tsar Ivan Alekseevich to the throne, Peter was proclaimed the second king, and Sophia, their sister - regents. The main directions of its activity and results. Domestic policy: 1- In the country after the Streltsy rebellion, it became possible to gradually limit the autocratic power of the monarch. The Boyar Duma concentrated considerable power in its hands. The issue of war with Turkey was decided at the Council. 2- Activities to limit the archery arbitrariness and restore order in the country. 3- began putting things in order in legal proceedings. Fight against graft. Canceled the death penalty for a number of crimes. Only governors were allowed to organize the search for runaway peasants. 4- The system of education and enlightenment was improved. In 1987, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened. Books are published and imported from abroad, large libraries appear in rich houses Foreign policy: 1- Relations with Poland. Diplomats persuaded Poland to sign an eternal peace with Russia in 1886. 2- Relations with Sweden. During difficult negotiations with Sweden, the Peace of Cardis was confirmed. 3- Relations with Turkey. Having secured ourselves from Sweden and Poland, we made plans to reach the Black Sea coast and penetrate the markets of Southern Europe and the Middle East. 1687, 1689 - Crimean campaigns, which forced the Crimean Khan to ask for peace and agree to recognize the accession of part of Ukraine with Kyiv to Russia. The years of Sofya Alekseevna's reign contributed to the flourishing of the country and raising its international prestige.
48. CatherineII (1762 - 1796)
Empress, ruler of Russia. The main directions of its activity and results. Domestic policy: 1- Approval of the legitimacy of obtaining power. Suppression of unrest in the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments. Liquidation of the pretender to the throne (1764) Ivan Antonovich. 2- Relations with the nobility. Distribution of estates and money to those who elevated her to the throne. In 1785, all possible privileges were complained to the nobles (Charter to the nobility). 3- Development of industry and trade. Letters of commendation to cities contribute to their development. Salt duties have been reduced, trade monopolies have been abolished, and bribery has been combated. 4- An attempt was made to develop a new set of laws in the empire. The attempt failed because there was no unity among the representatives of those gathered in Moscow. (1767) 5- Attitude towards serfdom. It is intensifying, which leads to unrest (Pugachev 1773-1775), an uprising of assigned and possessive peasants in Karelia, a plague riot in Moscow. Foreign policy: 1- In the southern direction, the struggle with Turkey continues. Wars of 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. allowed Russia to go out and gain a foothold on the shores of the Black Sea (Crimea, Georgia). 2- Relations with the European powers were built on a long-term basis. So, Russia took part in the division of Poland (1772.1793, 1795). 3- Russia acted in the international arena as a great power and defender of the weak. Catherine signed her declaration of independence in order to assert freedom of maritime trade with North America. The prestige of Russia, shaken during the palace coups, was raised by the efforts of Catherine the Great.
49. Paul I (1796-1801)
Son of Catherine the Great. Emperor, ruler of an empire. The years of his reign shook Russia. But there was a lot of usefulness in his undertakings, and without his reforms, Russia could hardly have coped with Napoleon.
The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1 - Strengthening personal power. Amnesty to the participants of the Polish uprising. Reduction of the rights of the nobility, the return of corporal punishment for them. The emergence of the law of succession to the throne (from father to eldest son). Liberties for cities were abolished, freedom of religion was introduced. 2- Reforming the army. Prussian-style uniforms were introduced, old guns were replaced with new ones, new regulations were introduced, the maintenance of soldiers was improved, and discipline for officers was strengthened. 3- Legislative activity. During these years, 2179 legislative acts were introduced that contradicted each other. 4- Fight against the threat of revolution. Censorship was introduced, a ban on travel abroad, printing houses were closed. 5- Attitude towards the peasantry. State peasants received the right to have self-government, compulsory work for the landowner was ordered to be reduced to three days a week. They were given 600,000 as awards. serfs. Foreign policy was also controversial. 1- He was opposed to the expansion of the empire, but a special status was introduced for Courland, the Polish language was allowed. 2- Attempts to expand Russian influence in the Eastern Mediterranean through an alliance with Turkey. 3- Relations with France. The clash of interests of Russia and France in the Mediterranean led to hostilities, as a result of which a republic was created on the Ionian Islands. (1798) 4- Relations with England and Austria. Under their influence, he sends an army with Suvorov against the French troops. The victory was in vain, because they did not support Russia (1799) 5- Relations with France. The state of confrontation was replaced by an alliance and a campaign of Russian Cossacks was being prepared in India against England, but a conspiracy against Paul (not without the participation of England) stopped this campaign.
50. Alexander I (1801 - 1825)
Emperor of Russia. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Strengthening the personal power of the emperor. Cancellation of paternal (Paul I) orders, amnesty, return of positions and privileges to the nobility and cities. The liquidation of the Secret Expedition and torture, the opening of printing houses and the return of the old uniforms in the army. 2- Changes in the governing bodies of the country. In 1810, the boards were replaced by ministries, the State Council appeared, the rights of the Senate were expanded - over which the Emperor stands. 3- Attempts to reform serfdom. In 1803 - a decree on free cultivators, in 1804 the abolition of serfdom in the Baltic states (without land). 1815 creation of military settlements. 4- Development of education. Several universities, gymnasiums, schools, the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum were opened. Foreign policy: 1-Relations with France. In 1801, the Treaty of Paris was signed. But France, gaining strength, becomes our potential adversary after 1804. In 1807, we were forced to sign the Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon and support him in the struggle against England. In 1812, Napoleon invades Russia and is defeated. 2- Relations with Austria and England. In 1805, at the battle of Austerlitz, the united army was defeated, but we managed to withdraw the army. 3 - Relations with Prussia. In 1807, in a coalition with Prussia, we fight against Napoleon, but we suffer defeat. 3- Relations with Turkey and Persia. We are waging successful wars with these countries for territories and spheres of influence in the southern seas. (1806-1812 - war with Turkey, 1804-1813 - war with Persia). 4- Our influence in the Mediterranean is shrinking. We lost the right to the Ionian Islands, we did not support the Greek uprising against Turkey. The name of Alexander I, the emperor with liberal sentiments, the Victor of Napoleon, entered the history of the world forever.
51. Nicholas I (1825 - 1855)
Emperor of Russia. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Bringing into strict order the state life. Publication (1833) of the code of laws of the Russian Empire, the creation of the Third Department, engaged in political investigation. The financial reform of Kankrin (1839-1843) was carried out, which made it possible to establish a fixed ratio of rubles and revived the economy. 2- Attitude towards serfdom. 1837-1841 - reform of the state village, the creation of 11 secret committees to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom, but Nicholas did not dare to cancel it. 3- Industrial development. An industrial revolution is taking place in the country, the number of enterprises has increased 3 times. New industries have appeared in the industry - this is the extraction of platinum, gold, oil. 4- The development of education in the empire. Higher technical institutions were opened. In 1835, the autonomy of universities was destroyed. common system there was no education in Russia. Foreign policy: 1- Russia's attempt to solve the Eastern question. In 1829, after another war with Turkey, according to the Adrianople peace treaty, Russia received almost everything it wanted, except for the straits. The Crimean War (1853-1856) was lost. 2- The attitude of the Emperor to the European revolutions of 1848-1849. Severe control over the minds, a ban on traveling abroad, military expeditions to suppress revolutions in European countries. "Gendarme of Europe" - Nicholas I. 3- Relations with the Caucasus. Turkey and Persia, who do not agree with the results of the wars, are trying to complicate life in the Caucasus. The Caucasian war for many decades distracted Russia from creation. Almost everything that Nicholas I created, affirmed and defended did not stand the test and was criticized. He died a disappointed and close to despair man, but time put everything in its place ...
52. AlexanderII (1855-1881)
Emperor of Russia. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1 - Elimination of the economic backwardness of Russia. Liberal reforms carried out - 1861. - the abolition of serfdom, 1864. - judicial reform, zemstvo, 1870 - city reform and 1874 - military reform. 2- Industrial development. In the post-reform period, the industrial revolution ended in the country. The main industrial regions of the country were formed - Ural, Southern, Moscow. 3- Public life. Since the middle of the century, populism has developed, which fiercely criticized the existing order and tried to change it. The government is developing plans for further reform of society. "Dictatorship of the Heart" Loris-Melikov. 4- Development of culture. Russian literature of this period became world heritage (Turgenev, Nekrasov, Tolstoy). Foreign policy: 1 - Russia's participation in geographical discoveries. Expeditions of the Geographical Society make trips to Central Asia, as a territory of possible economic influence (Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, Przhevalsky). 2- Relations with the Orthodox peoples of the Balkans. War with Turkey 1877-1878 was successful, which raises our authority as defenders of Orthodoxy, but destroys Russia's trust in Germany and Austria. 3- Expansion of the territory. Colonization of Central Asia - in the sixties, the lands in Central Asia were annexed to Russia (along the Amu Darya River, in Turkmenistan). 4- Relations with the USA. In 1866, a decision was made to sell America lands in Alaska. This event reflected the idea of a continental rather than a global future for Russia.
The era of Alexander II for Russia is a time of dynamic forward movement, an era of liberal transformations.
53. AlexanderIII (1881 - 1894)
Emperor of Russia. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Strengthening the class system and the autocratic regime. The highest functions of power (legislative, executive, judicial) were concentrated in the hands of the emperor. Repressions against populists, strengthening of gendarmerie supervision, tightening of orders. In 1884 there were restrictions on the self-government of the universities in order to curb dissent. 2- Industrial development. The state is actively developing and investing in those industries that are associated with the production of weapons and military equipment. The Witte monetary reform carried out led to an increase in the flow of money from abroad. 3- Development Agriculture. Banks were created - Peasant and Noble. The problem of lack of land is being solved through the resettlement policy. Foreign policy: 1- Relations with European powers. The Union of the Three Emperors (Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia) helped the Emperor eliminate the Afghan crisis and avoid a military clash with England. 2- The Eastern question is back on the agenda. Austrian influence increased in the Balkans, but the Emperor, using diplomacy, did not allow Russia to be drawn into new war. 3- During the reign Alexander III Russia moved closer to France, which ensured peace in Europe. He went down in history as a peacemaker.
54. Boris Yeltsin. (1991-1999)
First President of Russia. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Development of statehood and strengthening of presidential power. August 1991 counteraction to the coup plot (GKChP), the activity of the CPSU was suspended, the property of the party was nationalized. In 1993, the confrontation between the two branches of government (the executive represented by the president and the legislative represented by the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR) resulted in a political crisis (October 1993) and military clashes. The power of the President has been strengthened. And in December 1993, a new Constitution of Russia was adopted at a referendum. And soon elections to the Duma were held. 2- Changes in the national-state structure. In 1991, the autonomous republics within the RSFSR declared their sovereignty, and a number of autonomous regions declared themselves sovereign republics. In 1992, the Federal Treaty on the boundaries of the subjects of the federation was concluded in order to preserve the federation. But in order to suppress cases of mass violation of the rights of citizens in Chechnya, a counter is being carried out. large-scale terrorist operation (1994, 1999). 3- Development of the economy. In 1992-1993, a program of economic reforms was being implemented. Its goal is free pricing, trade liberalization, mass privatization of housing and enterprises. Shock therapy is used as the main method. The standard of living of the population has significantly decreased and worsened. Foreign policy: 1- The border of the state has changed and new political neighbors have appeared. These are the former republics of the USSR and the CIS was formed. The degree of the country's defense capability has changed. She became weaker. New relationships are being built. In these states, national conflicts arise and a massive outflow of Russians to Russia begins. 2- The main direction in foreign policy is relations with Western countries. The result of the development of relations with the United States was the redirection of nuclear missile strikes. In 1992, these powers officially recognized that the Cold War was over (Kemp-David), and their relations would be characterized by friendship and mutual assistance. 1993 year - new treaty on the limitation of strategic offensive arms. In 1994, Russia joined the NATO Partnership for Peace program, which provided for cooperation between countries in many areas, even in the military. Russia has withdrawn all its military units from the territory of Eastern Europe. 3- Relations with the countries of the East. Government delegations of Russia visited many countries and agreements were concluded there. These are Japan, India, South Korea, and China has become one of Russia's trading partners. Formation new Russia is a difficult process, but the name of the first President of Russia will forever be associated with this process.
55. Vladimir Putin (2000 - 2008) and since 2012 - the third term.
Second President of Russia. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Strengthening the central government in the country. Strengthening the vertical of power. Creation of federal districts headed by plenipotentiaries of the president. From 2000 to 2002, the Federation Council was reformed. Now the heads of regions were deprived of the right to personally represent the interests of their regions in Moscow. This is now entrusted to a specially appointed person. The State Council of Russia appears. He has advisory functions to the President. There is a creative process of bringing the laws of the subjects in line with the Constitution of the country. Subject heads are now appointed by the president. 2- Priority national projects are being developed and implemented - "Health", "Housing", "Development of the agro-industrial complex", "Education". 3- Development of the country's economy. By 2000, the economy begins to get rid of the consequences of the crisis. Growth begins in all indicators, although it is due to high prices for raw materials. (oil and gas). A doctrine is being embodied - a combination of the ideas of a market economy and effective state regulation. By 2008, Russia had developed political regime- Sovereign Democracy. In 2014, Sochi hosted the Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games, where Russia was the leader. Foreign policy: 1- Solving the problem of external debt. Using the Stabilization Fund, Russia got rid of the most burdensome debts. 2- Russian-American relations. There is active cooperation on issues of combating terrorism and disarmament, but there are also contradictions. The US is not going to withdraw its military bases from the territory of Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan after the end of the operation in Afghanistan. There is a further expansion of NATO to the east. 3- Relations with neighboring countries. The overthrow of the Shevardnadze regime in Georgia (2003), the "orange revolution" in Ukraine, the overthrow of A. Akaev in Kyrgyzstan set the task for Moscow to more actively interact with the CIS countries and pursue a more ambitious foreign policy in the post-Soviet space. On March 21, 2014, Crimea (republic) and the city of Sevastopol became part of Russia on the same rights as Moscow and St. Petersburg. The Crimean district was formed. Russia is a serious partner in the international arena, which actively declares its national interests and seeks to defend them. This is a huge merit of Vladimir Putin, the President of Russia.
56. Dmitry Medvedev (2008-2012.)
Third President of Russia. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- In 2008, Russia found itself in a global crisis. Foreign investors withdraw capital from Russia. Production is being curtailed, unemployment is rising in the country. The following measures were taken in response to the crisis. From the accumulated resources, funds were allocated to prevent the crash banking system and financing of the manufacturing sector of the economy. The state budget was adjusted (in 2009 it was in deficit). But the financing of social programs, such as maternity capital, pension increases, support for the automotive industry, and preparations for the Olympics continue. 2- In 2008, the military reform was launched. Its goal is to reduce the size of the Armed Forces, simplify the control system for them, and increase the combat readiness of the troops. 3- Activities to further prevent the negative consequences of the crisis. A course towards moving away from a resource-based economy, mastering the production of innovative products, using energy and resource-saving technologies, and modernizing the education system. Foreign policy: 1- Relations with the West. From aggravation to reset of relations with Western countries. Since the beginning of 2008, our relations with the US have been aggravated because of Kosovo. We have resumed flights of our bombers near the borders of NATO countries. Formations of the Navy are put on combat duty in the waters of the oceans and take part in the fight against Somali pirates.2- Relations with neighboring countries. Relations with Georgia deteriorated after its attack on South Ossetia. Russian peacekeepers were fired upon. The intervention of the 58th Russian army prevented the genocide in South Ossetia. 3- Relations with Ukraine. The "gas war" is a conflict over gas prices and the cost of its transit to the countries of Central and Western Europe. The active role of Russia in the world, the strengthening of its international positions objectively act as a factor in the stability of the world order, and this is the personal merit of the Third President of Russia, Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev.
57. Mikhail Gorbachev ((1985-1991)
General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the first and last President USSR. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1-Political changes in society. In 1988, alternative elections of party secretaries were introduced. A system of electing the heads of enterprises was introduced. Previously closed works (Sozhenitsyn, Zamyatin, Volkogonov) are published openly and in large numbers. The main idea of this period was the construction of the rule of law. The post of President of the USSR was introduced. Mikhail Gorbachev was elected to this post in March 1990. In the same year, all the repressions of the Stalinist period were declared illegal. 2- Development of the economy. In 1987, the economic reform begins, which provides for the expansion of the economic independence of enterprises. In 1988, a law appeared that opened up space for private activity. In 1990, the resolution "On the concept of transition to a regulated market economy" was adopted, and the "500 days" program was adopted. 3- Social policy. In 1985, the fight against drunkenness and alcoholism was launched, and in 1986, a company to combat unearned income, the program "Every family - a separate apartment or house by the year 2000." All these activities were of a social nature and had practically no lasting results. Foreign policy: 1- Relations with the countries of Eastern Europe. In 1991, the dissolution of the CMEA. The crisis of total socialism has become universal. The former countries of socialism begin to build their lives without the prompting of the USSR. There is a unification of the two Germanys, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Europe. 2- Relations with the West. Meetings between the leaders of the USA and the USSR became an annual event. In May 1987, a proposal was made for the simultaneous dissolution of the WTO and NATO. The withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan took place on February 15, 1989. 3- Relations with China. In the summer of 1989, Gorbachev visited China, which contributed to the normalization of Soviet-Chinese relations. USSR President Gorbachev Laureate Nobel Prize as a fighter for peace. He has done a lot to change the mindset of the world and to save the world.
58. Anna Ioannovna. (1730-1740)
A relative of Peter invited from Courland. Empress. The main directions of its activity and results. Domestic policy: 1- Strengthening personal power. For this, the Supreme Privy Council was abolished, and instead a cabinet of ministers was introduced, which limited the power of the empress not really, but formally. The appearance of the Germans - favorites at the court as performers and advisers. The emergence of the Secret Chancellery with investigation, torture and terror. 2- Attitude towards the nobility as a support of autocracy. The term of service for nobles is limited to 25 years. Cadet corps were created to educate the military elite from among the children of the nobility. There was a right to enroll noble children from infancy. 3- Attitude towards ordinary people (serfs). The old order of providing enterprises with serf labor was confirmed, it is allowed to buy peasants without land. Foreign policy: 1- The task of fighting Turkey and Crimea for the return of Azov. As a result of the war of 1735-1739. received Khotyn, Azov was neutralized, Kabarda became neutral and Russia did not have the right to keep the fleet on the Black and Seas of Azov. This war cost Russia 100 thousand. lives.2 - Relations with Poland. We are joining the war for the Polish inheritance. We helped with the help of troops to raise King Augustus III to the Polish throne. 3- Relations with France. By supporting the Polish opposition, we angered France. (Clash with them in the Danzig area). They are trying to take revenge in the south ... with the help of the Turks, the French ambassador provoked the Sultan to war (the war of 1735-1739). 4- Relations with Austria were allied because of the common enemy - Turkey. The name of Empress Anna Ioannovna is associated with Bironovism - political terror and disrespect for Russian customs.
59. Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)
Youngest daughter of Peter. Empress. Received the throne as a result of another palace coup. The main directions of its activity and results. Domestic policy: 1-Attitude towards serfdom. Restriction of serf labor in manufactories, the number of bonded peasants was reduced. But serfdom in Russia is unshakable. 2- Changes in the government of the country. The liquidation of the Cabinet and the establishment of the Council, the Senate became Governing, the boards were restored, prosecutorial supervision was restored. 3- Strengthening personal power. Reprisals and disgrace with representatives of the old government. The family of Ivan Antonovich was exiled, and he (the baby) was imprisoned in the fortress. The terror against the Russian nobility has been stopped, but the Secret Chancellery is operating. The nobility regained its privileges. The Empress chooses an heir from her relatives (she has no children of her own) and begins to prepare him to rule the country. 4- Strengthening the country's defense capability. Ships are being built, the quantitative composition of the army is being restored. 5 - Development of industry and trade. State-owned factories are being transferred to the nobility, the number of state-owned monopolies is being reduced, internal customs have been abolished. And the policy of protectionism led to the rise of industry and trade. 6- Development of religions and national relations. Lutheran churches have been turned into Orthodox ones, the persecution of Old Believers, Jews who did not accept Christianity, are expelled from the country. The sale of the Bible available to everyone at the price was organized. 7- Development of culture and education. Opening of the University in 1755. The development of palace architecture, the opening of the Academy of Arts. Foreign policy: 1- Relations with Sweden. From 1741-1743 another war initiated by Sweden, which sought to return the lost lands. But she didn't get anything in the Abo world, and we got some new land in Finland. It was the Strange War. 2- Relations with Prussia. The aggressive policy of the Prussian king with a vector to the east led to the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). It was a military conflict on a European scale. In 1760, our troops entered Berlin, it seemed that victory was close, but the change of power in Russia made it a failure. The heir of Elizabeth Petrovna signed a truce with Prussia. 3- Relations with Turkey. The unsuccessful war (1735-1739), according to which we still received some land along the middle reaches of the Dnieper, did not dampen Russia's desire to have access to the sea. A new fortress of St. Dmitry Rostovsky on the Don. The activities of Elizabeth Petrovna raised the authority of the country, shaken during palace coups.
60. Peter I (1682-1725)
The first Russian emperor. From 1682 to 1689 power was exercised by the regensha - Princess Sophia. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- The development of industry, agriculture and trade is dictated by the tasks of Russia's access to the sea shores. New manufactory-shipyards appeared (259 ships were built on them), metallurgical enterprises were built (in 1725 they smelted up to 800 poods of iron), there were 25 textile manufactories. They were all subordinate to the Chief Magistrate. To regulate the work of small artisans, a decree on workshops was issued (in Moscow in 1720 there were 146 of them). In total, under Peter there were 200 enterprises. He pursued a protectionist policy towards Russian goods, through subsidies, equipment and raw materials. In 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced. Forced labor was used everywhere. In agriculture, the changes are less noticeable. Its production increased due to extensive development and cruel exploitation of the peasants. The flight of peasants to new lands was a frequent occurrence. 1- The fight against violators of the internal order. The suppression of the uprising of Kondraty Bulavin (1707-1708) and the Astrakhan uprising of 1705 3 - Attitude towards the nobility. The decree on single inheritance strengthens the economic basis of the estate (1714) by merging estates, estates and unconditional possessions. The table of ranks of 1722 allows you to receive ranks and titles depending on the length of service. 3- Public administration reforms. 1711 - the Senate appears - a body of judicial, administrative-representative, and sometimes legislative power. At the same time, the position of fiscals appeared, who observed and revealed the facts of violation of decrees, state treasury. Over the Senate appeared control in the person of the Prosecutor General since 1722. Instead of orders, colleges appeared (1711). A Synod appeared to manage church property (1721). In 1708-1710, a provincial reform was carried out. 8 provinces appeared with a governor (all power was in his hands), by 1719 there were already 11 provinces in the country and they were divided into 50 provinces, each of them was divided into distributions. 4 - Strengthening the personal power of the king. The fight against the opposition supported by the archers (1698). The adoption of the decree on succession to the throne (1722). Assuming the title of Emperor in 1721 5- Much has been done in the country for the development of education, science and culture. This is the opening of schools of various profiles. In 1719, the Kunzkamera was opened - the first museum. Foreign policy: 1- Struggle for access to the southern shores. The Azov campaigns (1695, 1696) give a slight advantage, and the Prut campaign of 1711. leads to the loss of this advantage. 2- The struggle for access to the Baltic coast. Northern war with Sweden 1700-1721 brought Russia not only success, but also raised the international prestige as an Empire. 3- The southwestern direction of foreign policy (Persian campaign in 1722-1723) was also successful. So Russia set about mastering the coast of the Caspian Sea. 4- Accession of new lands, their successful development takes place in the Baltic States, Finland, in the south and the construction of new fortresses and outposts. 5- Diplomatic relations are developing with many European countries. And they have prospects for development (Great Embassy 1697-1698). Peter I went down in history as the discoverer of Russia for the World.
61. Joseph Stalin (1922-1953)
The head of the Soviet state. Leader of the Communist Party. The main direction of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1-Development of industry and agriculture in order to create the country's defense through industrialization and collectivization. (1926, 1930). The construction of industrial giants that make up the group "A" of industrial enterprises is underway. In the countryside, the socialization of labor and property (land) takes place through the formation of collective farms, and those who do not agree are sent to the construction sites of the century. There is a curtailment of NEP (1929). 2- Struggle for the strengthening of personal power. The fight against oppositionists who have a different view of the development of the country (Trotsky, Bukharin) leads to the formation of a one-party system in the USSR. And to strengthen and clean the ranks of the CPSU (b), purges and repressions are carried out (1937, 1946, 1953). And at the top of such a pyramid stands a personality - J. Stalin. A personality cult is being formed. 4- The political development of society. In 1936, the new constitution of the USSR was adopted, which formally was the most democratic in the world, but in fact it was never implemented. Foreign policy: 1- Relations with Germany. Since the late 1920s, we have been actively cooperating with this state. We place their military orders at our factories, and there is an exchange of cadets of military schools. In 1933, we break off all relations, because the fascists came to power, not hiding their desire for revenge. In 1939, we sign a non-aggression pact with them for a period of 10 years. On September 28, 1939, we sign a friendship and border treaty with them, fixing the territories of the already divided Poland. In 1941 the Great Patriotic War between the USSR and fascist Germany, in which fascism was destroyed (1945). 2- Relations with the USA and England. In 1933, the United States legally recognized the USSR. During the Second World War, we unite to fight against fascism. Our leaders meet in 1943, 1945 From them, under Lend-Lease, we get what we need for the front. Together, the fate of the post-war peace in Europe was decided. Unfortunately, at the end of the 1940s, a confrontation began, the so-called "cold war". In 1953, during the Korean War, we are already ardent opponents. 3- Creation of a camp of socialist countries. After the liberation of Europe from the Nazis, we support people's democratic regimes in such countries as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, etc. Under our leadership and control, they are building socialism. In 1949, the CMEA was created. To help the socialist countries. Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin is an outstanding world political leader who led the USSR to the Great VICTORY.
62. Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev (1953-1964)
Leader of the Soviet state. Leader of the Communist Party. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Strengthening personal power in the party, the fight against rivals in the person of Beria, Malenkov, Molotov. By 1958, it was successfully completed. 2- The de-Stalinization of society, begun at the 20th Party Congress, was inconsistent, but allowed a new assessment of the country's past, freeing itself from the personality cult of Stalin. The rehabilitation of innocently convicted lovers began, their restoration of their rights, the closure of the Gulag, the deported peoples (Kalmyks, Ingush, etc.) were returned to their places of historical residence and restored to their rights. 3- Changes in the management of the country. The apparatus of officials was reduced, the rights of the union republics were expanded, new ministries appeared in the republics. 4- Development of party building. Accepted new program The CPSU, the country's goals for the future have been determined - this is the construction of communism, the development of a new constitution for the USSR has begun. 4- The development of the national economy of the country continues, in an extensive way, with the priority of the enterprises of group "A". In 1953, agriculture was in critical condition due to lack of fodder. Virgin epic from 1954-1958. allowed to stabilize the situation, but it was during these years that we began to purchase grain abroad. The armed forces of the country are equipped with nuclear weapons based on rocket troops. The era of space exploration begins (1957, 1961). 5 - Improving people's lives brings optimism and cheerfulness to the mood of the population. The growth of wages, the mass construction of panel multi-storey buildings, the appearance of pensions and passports among rural residents confirms this. Tuition fees have been abolished, school reform has been carried out, eight years of education are now compulsory for everyone. Many books and magazines of a democratic orientation are published. Foreign policy: This is a time of "thaw" not only within the country, but also in foreign policy. 1- Friendly relations with the US are replaced by confrontation. In 1959, Khrushchev's visit to the United States took place, his speech to the public. In 1957, in the United States, he was declared "Person of the Year". But in 1962, the Cuban Missile Crisis struck, which brought the world to the brink. nuclear war. In 1963, an agreement was signed banning the use of nuclear weapons in conflicts. 2- Relations with the countries of the socialist camp are reduced to an attempt to influence their internal development (the suppression of unrest in 1956 in Hungary by force of arms). The Organization of the Warsaw Pact countries is being created - this is a military organization. We ourselves imposed on Cuba the deployment of missiles in 1962 (the Caribbean crisis). 3- Relations with countries, former colonies. During the years of his reign, Nikita Sergeevich visited 20 such countries and cooperation agreements were signed with all of them (India, Burma ...). The reign of N.S. Khrushchev is the time of the rise of the USSR and the expansion of its influence in the world.
63. Catherine I (1725-1727)
Wife of Peter I, empress. She received the throne with the support new nobility(Menshikov, Tolstoy) and the guards because Peter did not have time to name the successor. Catherine was not capable of governing the state. The main directions of its activity and results. Domestic policy: 1-Strengthening personal power and fighting the opposition. There is a struggle between the leaders (members of the Supreme Privy Council, created on February 8, 1726 to help manage) and those who did not enter there. 2- Governance of the country. Continuation of Peter's policy, namely: the approval of the staff of colleges, the resolution of other issues, the opening of the Academy of Sciences and the invitation of scientists from England. The reduction in the poll tax, in order to avoid unrest among the people, canceled the participation of the army in its collection. They allowed the nobles to trade in all cities. 3- The increase in the possessions of the Russian Empire due to the geographical discoveries of Bering. Now her possessions stretched over three continents: Europe, Asia and North America. Foreign policy: This is a time of ill-conceived actions. 1- We are on the verge of war with Denmark for the sake of the interests of the Duchy of Holstein, where the daughter of the Empress Anna Petrovna was married. 2- Because of Menshikov's personal ambitions, Russia intervened in the conflict over Courland. 3- A careless policy in the south almost led to a war with Turkey. The activities of Empress Catherine I are not distinguished by anything special, except that this coincided with the beginning of palace coups in Russia.
64. Nicholas II (1894-1917)
The last reigning emperor from the Romanov dynasty. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Development of industry and agriculture. At the beginning of the century, Russia ranked first in the world in grain production. But the problems of the countryside: the payment of redemption payments, the commune, lack of land and agrarian overpopulation hamper development. In 106, redemption payments were canceled and the Quiet Revolution began - Stolypin's agrarian reform, which partially resolved these contradictions. By total volume industrial production Russia ranks fifth in the world. Railways are being actively built (there are already 50,000 miles of them), there are about a hundred universities and institutes in the country. 2- The situation of the working population. The growth of enterprises leads to an increase in the number of workers, but the concentration of workers was the highest in the world, and this layer was replenished at the expense of the peasantry. And the working day was 11.5 hours with poor safety and low wages. 3- Attitude towards the nobility. This is still the highest stratum, but it is gradually being ruined, one third of all estates already belong to the bourgeoisie. 4- With the completion of the industrial revolution in Russia, a new layer of rich people finally formed - this is the bourgeoisie, but they did not have access to government, the emperor's power was unlimited. According to the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. The era of parliamentarism and pluralism begins in Russia. (four compositions of dumas were elected). 5- Three revolutions fell to the lot of the last emperor. Revolution of 1905-1907 was suppressed, but her challenges to society were met. And the February Revolution of 1917 removed him from power, and the October Revolution of 1917 sentenced him to death. 6 Development of science and culture. The period of the turn of the century is called the silver age of Russian culture, which was known and loved all over the world (composers, artists, scientists, writers). Foreign policy: 1- The Russian emperor was the initiator of the beginning of the struggle for the prohibition of the use of weapons of mass destruction in wars. In 1898 a conference was convened. 2- Far East policy. The clash of economic interests between Russia and Japan led to an open conflict (the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905), as a result, Russia had to abandon Port Arthur and the southern part of Sakhalin Island. 3- European politics. Since 1907, Russia has been part of the Entente and is included in the redistribution of the already divided world, and on August 1, 1914, Germany starts the war. This is a new tragic page in the biography of the emperor. On March 3, 1917, the Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne will end, but the controversial figure of Nicholas II will attract attention more than once.
65. Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (1964-1982)
The head of the Soviet state of the period of developed socialism, the head of the CPSU. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Public administration: economic councils were abolished, the number of officials increased (there were 6 employees per official). Increased control by the party apparatus over all spheres of life, the Constitution of 1977 consolidated the leading role of the party in Art. 6. 2- Public political life. The role of Stalin is glorified in the cinema and speeches from the podium (this is neo-Stalinism). A dissident movement appears, the expulsion of well-known cultural figures from the country (A.I. Solzhenitsyn). History textbooks have been rewritten, chapters on Stalin's personality cult and mass repressions have disappeared from them. People objectionable to the government were imprisoned in psychiatric hospitals, mass wiretapping of phones, surveillance by KGB agents. 3- Economic development of the country. In 1965, the reform of A.N. Kosygin, but gradually it fades, without solving the problems of the village. In 1982, the Food Program appears, as the country is faced with the fact that there is not enough food for the population. The shadow economy is actively developing. The country's budget is replenished mainly through the sale of resources (oil and gas) to other countries. It is spent not on the acquisition of new technologies, but on the purchase of food and light industry products. The economy develops in an extensive way, the most progressive are the enterprises of group "A" (production of means of production and the military industry). Foreign policy: 1 Relations with the countries of the socialist camp. Since the 1960s, crisis situations have been brewing there, because Soviet totalitarianism did not suit the majority of the population of these countries. But the USSR could not allow this. In 1968, this happened in Prague, but the unrest was suppressed by the police forces. After that, China, Yugoslavia, Romania, Albania moved away from the USSR. The “Brezhnev Doctrine” appeared, which led to even greater control over these countries. 2- Relations with Western countries. In this direction, there is a turn in the direction of detente. Agreements on SALT-1 (1972), SALT-2 (1979) were signed. In 1975, a meeting was held in Helsinki. BUT at the same time, the arms race continues. In 1979, the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, 1980 the United States boycotted Olympic Games in Moscow, in 1979-1980 - the Americans launched a company to accommodate Western Europe neutron weapons. 3- Participation of the USSR in regional conflicts. The USSR supported Vietnam throughout its war with the United States. During the Arab-Israeli war, the USSR supported Egypt and Syria. With the support of the USSR, the wars for independence in Angola, Mozambique and Guinea achieved their goals. All local conflicts bore the stamp of confrontation between the USSR and the USA. The reign of Leonid Brezhnev went down in history as a time of stagnation, but the USSR is still a great power.
66. Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov (1982-1984)
Head of the Soviet state, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. The main directions of its activity and its results. As a former head of the KGB, Yuri Vladimirovich was well aware of the problems in society. Domestic policy: 1- Tightening the fight against various kinds of violations. Control over the observance of labor discipline, increased requirements for management personnel. The fight against corruption in the highest echelons of power (the Uzbek case) began. 18 ministers and 37 first secretaries of regional party committees lost their posts. 2- Fight against dissent. Methods of psychiatric coercion are widely used for those who dared to express their opinion. A campaign of counter-propaganda began, which was supposed to convince the citizens of the country that the source of all problems in society are external, hostile forces, primarily the United States. 3- Development of the economy. It is developing along an extensive path, the shadow economy is actively manifesting itself. The term mafia appears, which means such a phenomenon as the merging of the criminal world with power structures. In order to accelerate scientific and technological progress, it was supposed to introduce state certification of product quality. Foreign policy: 1- The war in Afghanistan continues. The authority of the USSR among the countries of the world continues to decline. 2- Relations with the countries of the socialist camp. Tensions with Poland, Yugoslavia. We are actively helping third world countries in building the foundations of socialism (Ethiopia). 3- Increasing confrontation with the US. In 1984, the USSR deployed medium-range nuclear missiles on the territory of Czechoslovakia and the GDR. The 1983 conflict over the downed South Korean Boeing leads to a new round of tension. Yu.V. Andropov is still controversial among historians. Another thing is important for us - the administrative-command system of governing the country is driving it to a dead end.
67. Lenin (Ulyanov) Vladimir Ilyich
1. Lived in XIX - XX centuries. The founder of the party of workers - the RSDPR in 1903. The first leader of the Soviet state. 1917-1924 The Russian politician, the leading theorist of Russian social democracy, was fanatically devoted to the cause of the revolution. The main directions of its activity and its results. Domestic policy: 1- Building a socialist society, through the nationalization of land and other types of property and their transfer to the people, through the creation of organs of people's power - the Soviets. Fight against counter-revolution and intervention. The Civil War (1918-1920) ended with the victory of the Reds. The policy of "war communism" was the most effective policy during these years. BUT the post-war situation required other methods. In 1921, a new economic policy began in Russia. Small enterprises are leased out or returned to their former owners under state control, in the countryside the surplus appropriation is replaced by a tax in kind, and six months later the country has revived.2- Struggle against the opposition. The dispersal of the Constituent Assembly (1918), the suppression of the Krondstadt rebellion, Antonovshchina (1921) - allowed the Soviets to keep power in their hands. The mass expulsion from Russia for fear of the Red Terror, the color of the Russian intelligentsia, makes the Soviet Republic a monster in the eyes of the world community. 3- Socio-political life. In 1918, the first Russian constitution was created, which secured the rights won by the revolution. In 1922, the USSR was created at the First Congress of Soviets, and in 1924 the first Constitution of the USSR appeared. Foreign policy: 1- Withdrawal from the First World War. On March 3, 1918, the Brest peace was signed, which gave us the opportunity to establish a peaceful life, but at the same time we demobilize the army and lose territories in the West. 2- Relations with the leading countries of the world (England, France, USA). They do not recognize the existence of such a state as Soviet Russia and do not take into account its interests when creating the Versailles-Washington system. 3- Relations with Germany. In 1921, a trade agreement was signed, and in 1922, the restoration of diplomatic relations with her. 4- Struggle for world revolution. In 1920, there was an unsuccessful Soviet-Polish war, which only resulted in casualties and loss of territory. The export of the revolution did not happen not only to Poland, but also to Germany. Lenin forever entered world history as a personality of gigantic proportions, which still has many followers and students. He is the Author of a unique experiment with the population of RUSSIA.
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“Recommendations for completing task C6. on the history of Ancient Russia. Historical portraits Greetings to dear readers of the site, and in this post I ... "
tasks C6. in history
Ancient Russia. historical portraits
Greetings
dear readers of the site, and in this post I will continue the conversation on C6.
Dmitry Donskoy, all these historical portraits are written in maximum score and
meet all the criteria for assessing the work of C6 on the exam. By the way, I recommend adding
bookmark this site so as not to miss anything interesting Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky - historical portraitС6 Time of life: the end of the 11th century - the middle of the 12th century (~ 1091-1157) Reigned: 1125-1157
He lived at the end of the XI - the middle of the XII century. Ruled in Suzdal, Rostov, Peryaslav, Kyiv from 1125 to 1157. He received the nickname "Dolgoruky" for frequent intervention in foreign lands. The following areas of activity can be distinguished under his leadership.
Domestic policy:
1.1. The beginning of Yuri's domestic policy was the struggle for the great reign of Kiev. On the way to Kyiv, he transferred the center of the principality from Rostov to Suzdal, became the first independent prince of North-Eastern Russia, subjugated Mur, Ryazan, seized lands along the banks of the Volga, conquered the Volga Bulgaria, defeated the troops of the Kyiv prince Izyaslav and illegally took possession of Kyiv, as a result which was returned back to Suzdal, tk.
violated the rule of Father Yaroslav the Wise - a ladder. By the middle of the XII century. Yuri Dolgoruky seized the throne of Kyiv.
1.2. Having become the prince of Kyiv, Yuri took up urban planning: he built several fortresses; founded such cities as Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Moscow.
2. Foreign policy:
2.1. Yuri, according to the tradition started by Vladimir the Red Sun, strengthened ties with Byzantium by concluding a second marriage with a relative of the Byzantine emperor.
2.2. As it was already written earlier, before becoming the Great Prince of Kyiv in 1120, Yuri led a successful campaign against the Volga Bulgaria.
As a result of his activities, Yuri Vladimirovich achieved the title of Grand Duke of Kyiv, pursued a successful policy of urban planning, became the prince who laid the foundation for the dynasty of Vladimir-Suzdal and Moscow rulers, and was remembered as the organizer of North-Eastern Russia. The activity of Yuri, in comparison with other rulers of our state, was rather insignificant, but in historical science he is associated as the founder of the capital - the city of Moscow.
Andrey Yurievich Bogolyubsky - historical portrait.
Life time: 1st quarter of the 12th century. - the end of the 3rd quarter of the XII century.
Years of government: 1157-1174
He was the son of Yuri Dolgoruky. He received his nickname "Bogolyubsky" for the foundation of his western residence in Bogolyubovo, where he spent all his free time. After the death of his father, Andrei inherited the throne of Kyiv, but renounced it in favor of ruling in Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. The main activities of Andrei Bogolyubsky.
1. Domestic policy:
1.1. Destruction of Kyiv. Andrei Yurievich stubbornly fought for the conquest of his power in Novgorod and led a complex military policy in the south of Russia. In 1169 Kyiv rebelled against its prince. As a result, Andrei punished Kyiv by defeating it. After conquering Kyiv to his power, he nevertheless forced to recognize himself as the Grand Duke, without leaving his cities of Suzdal, Rostov and Vladimir. Kyiv lost its age-old seniority and was plundered. After the defeat of Kyiv, he moved the center of the Orthodox capital - he took one of the most revered shrines from Vyshgorod to Vladimir - the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God. By his actions, Andrey Yuryevich tried to create the Metropolis of Vladimir isolated from Kyiv, but the Church of Constantinople did not allow this.
1.3. Construction of temples. During the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl and the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir were erected.
2. Foreign policy:
2.1. In 1164, Andrei organized his first military campaign against the Volga Bulgaria, which ended very successfully.
2.2. In 1172, the second military campaign against the Volga Bulgaria was carried out, which, like the first one, ended in success.
Results of activity:
The results of the foreign policy of Andrei Yurievich Bogolyubsky were successful campaigns against the Volga Bulgaria. The results of these two campaigns were the capture of the Bulgar city of Bryakhimov, the complete burning of three other cities, and their complete plunder. This ruler during the years of his reign, led a very successful domestic policy. He turned the Vladimir lands into a powerful Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which became one of the most influential in Russia. Vladimir Prince left behind a huge cultural heritage. Churches, temples, holidays, cathedrals, the main residence of the prince - an invaluable contribution to Russian culture.
Historical portrait of Vsevolod III the Big Nest Life time: mid-12th century. - 1st quarter of the 13th century.
Years of government: 1176-1212
After the death of Prince Andrei, his policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod III the Big Nest, who received his nickname because he had so many sons. Vsevolod cruelly avenged the death of his brother, and defeated the boyars. In fact, in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, a monarchical form of government was becoming.
The main activities of Vsevolod the Big Nest.
1. Domestic policy:
1.1. Under Vsevolod, his principality became the strongest in Russia. He tried to subjugate Novgorod to his power, expanding the territory of his principality at the expense of the Novgorod lands. He was also able to subjugate Kyiv, Chernigov, Ryazan, Novgorod, Pereyaslavl-South to his power. The reasons for Vsevolod's success are reliance on new cities, such as Vladimir, Dmitrov, Kostroma and Tver, where the boyars were relatively weak, and Vsevolod also tried to rely on the nobility.
1.2. Construction of temples. Vsevolod also erected and reconstructed cultural monuments. During his reign, the Assumption Cathedral was reconstructed, the Dmitrievsky Cathedral, the Nativity Cathedral, and the Vladimirsky Detinets were built.
2. Foreign policy:
2.1. Vsevolod, like his father and brother, successfully fought with the Volga Bulgaria.
2.2. Also, Vsevolod very successfully repelled the raids of the Polovtsy, thereby protecting the southern borders of Russia from attack, together with the princes of Vladimir, Ryazan and Suzdal.
Results of activity:
During the reign of Vsevolod, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality became the strongest in Russia.
He concluded two profitable trade agreements with the Volga Bulgaria, participated in successful campaigns against the Polovtsians. He expanded his possessions, subjugated Novgorod and Ryazan.
Also, like his brother Andrei, he made an invaluable contribution to Russian culture.
Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky C6 Life time: 1st quarter of the 13th century. - 3rd quarter of the 13th century.
Years of government: 1252-1263
Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky - Prince of Novgorod, Kyiv. famous Russian commander, famous for his rich foreign policy. The main activities of Alexander Nevsky.
1. Domestic policy:
1.1. Alexander Nevsky during his reign visited the Horde several times, collaborating with it. After helping in the census, he received a label for the Great reign. On the other hand, the prince went against the Mongol-Tatars, preventing their raids on Russia, pursuing the policy of "The sword in the West, peace in the East."
1.2. Alexander Yaroslavovich, as well as his predecessors, pursued a construction policy. He reconstructed and created temples, cathedrals, cities.
2. Foreign policy:
Results of activity:
He laid the foundation for cooperation between the Russian princes and the Horde. He made a small but important contribution to Russian culture, and as a result of foreign policy, he saved Russia from crushing raids by the troops of the Mongol-Tatars and Swedes.
Ivan Danilovich Kalita - historical portrait C6 Lifetime: 4th quarter of the 13th century. - 2nd third of the XIV century.
Years of government: 1328-1340
Prince of Vladimir, Novgorod, Moscow - Ivan Danilovich Kalita, son of Daniil Alexandrovich - the founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes. Ivan I made a huge contribution to the strengthening of the Moscow principality. The main activities of Ivan Kalita.
Domestic policy:
1.1. He transferred the residence of Metropolitan Peter to Moscow, thereby increasing the influence of the Moscow principality in Russia.
1.2. He strengthened autocratic power, a number of reforms - he established a new order of succession to the throne, introduced an agricultural law, and extended his influence to the lands of North-Eastern Russia.
1.3. Construction of temples and cathedrals. Under Ivan Kalita, the Assumption Cathedral, the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor, the Archangel Cathedral, the Church of St. John of the Ladder were built.
Foreign policy:
2.1. Ivan the First, through his policy, created a strong relationship with the Golden Horde.
Fixed the collection of tribute from the Russian princes. They spoke of him as the "collector of the Russian land"
2.2. He received a label for the Great reign, for helping the Horde in the punitive operation of Tver.
Results of activity:
Ivan Kalita made a great contribution to the unification of Russian lands, raised Moscow above other principalities of Russia, established strong peaceful relations with the Golden Horde, and also made a great contribution to Russian culture of the XIII-XIV centuries.
Historical portrait of Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy Life time: mid-14th century. - IV quarter of the XIV century.
Years of government: 1363-1389
Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy, Prince of Vladimir and Moscow, son of Ivan the Red.
He received the nickname "Donskoy" for a brilliant victory at the Battle of Kulikovo.
The main activities of Dmitry Donskoy.
Domestic policy:
1.1. He continued the policy of "collecting Russian lands" of Ivan I Kalita.
1.2. He retained the right of the Moscow prince to the great reign of Vladimir. As a result of this struggle, Dmitry Ivanovich, with the support of the Church, retained the right of the Moscow princes to a great reign in Vladimir.
Foreign policy:
2.1. The battle on the Vozha River in 1378 is the victory of the Russian troops.
2.2. The Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 is the victory of the Russian troops.
2.3. Reflection of the raids of the Lithuanian troops (Lithuanian-Moscow war) - the victory of the Russian troops.
Results of activity:
As a result of his reign, Dmitry Donskoy was able to unite the Moscow and Vladimir principalities, led an extremely active foreign policy with Golden
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Good afternoon dear friends and applicants!
Preparation for the exam in history is unthinkable without the skills of writing a historical portrait and explaining the principles of how to solve exam tests. The tasks in part C are aimed at developing such skills. The last of them will be devoted to one historical figure. Rather, you will have to choose one historical figure, and not from three, as in 2014, but from four - one figure will be from the World History.
This is exactly what follows from the FIPI Control and Measuring Materials. I quote:
“In connection with the need, in accordance with the requirements of the Federal component state standards secondary (complete) general education, inclusion in the KIM USE on the history of tasks that test knowledge of world history, task C6 presents not three, and four historical figures, one of which is studied in the course of world history... . Maximumthe score that can be obtained for the correct completion of task C6 has been increased to 6.
Specification of control measuring materials for carrying out in 2013unified state exam in history p.8
In mastering these skills of writing an essay on a historical portrait, a competent history tutor or our free online tutor can help you. Also, of course, take the advice of your school teachers - who know your true level of knowledge in history. I also recommend that you read the post, which clearly shows how to write.
In the future, within the framework of this site, I plan to release a video lesson on figures from world history.
Finally, as promised, I post the file that was created in this video tutorial for two historical figures Catherine the Great and N.S. Khrushchev:
Successors: From Ivan III to Dmitry Medvedev
The book is available in different formats: an audiobook (digital version) and a paper version for lovers of traditional books. Everything is detailed and very colorful. Each portrait is drawn through his actions, life and, most importantly, through state activity.
Chronology of presentation from Ivan the Great to Dmitry Medvedev. I think the book is extremely useful for the study of historical portraits. In addition, the presence of different formats is very convenient: I personally “uploaded” the files to my phone and for two days I enjoyed the story in a variety of places: a store, a bus, a bus stop, at work, at home before going to bed.
Many graduates take USE form and history. Therefore, today we will discuss some features of this exam. In addition, these items mutually help! Examples from history - to illustrate social phenomena. For example, social inequality: in the old Russian code of laws "Russian Truth" the murder of a free person was punishable by a fine of 40 hryvnia, and a dependent - 5 hryvnia.
History provides the facts with which social scientists illustrate social phenomena. The better you know history, the better you pass social studies - this is the pattern.
One of the most difficult at the Unified State Exam in history is the written task C6, in everyday life "Historical portrait". Let's see how it is formulated in the 2014 demo.
C6. Below are four historical figures from different eras. Choose ONE of them and complete the tasks.
1) Dmitry Donskoy; 2) M.M. Speransky; 3) W. Churchill; 4) N.S. Khrushchev.
Indicate the lifetime of the historical figure (up to a decade or part of a century). Name at least two areas of its activity and give a brief description of them. Indicate the results of its activities in each of these areas.
Experience shows that at the exam it is rarely offered to write a portrait of a figure in the history of the "foreground" - Dmitry Donskoy, Peter the Great, Lenin, Stalin. Rather, these are characters of a "second plan" - reformers (Speransky, Uvarov, Witte), writers, public figures (Solzhenitsyn, Sakharov). And this, you see .. more difficult.
For example, in one of the variants of the Unified State Exam-2012 there were Daniil Galitsky (!!!), Pavel I and L.I. Brezhnev. What do you know about Sun Yat-sen??? Yes, last year it was offered to graduates for description. Let's guess, and take one of these figures of the "second plan", if not the "third plan".
Moscow Kremlin under Ivan III, 1921
Russian artist Apollinary Mikhailovich Vasnetsov
What unites a photograph and a picture of the great Wanderer Vasnetsov? Of course, in the photo is the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, and its architect, the Italian Aristotle Fioravanti, is also the author of the red-brick walls of the Kremlin.
For those who do not know anything about this person, see the interesting article What is it? And a diplomat, and a secret agent ... So, let's get started. Indicate the lifetime of the historical figure (up to a decade or part of a century). We carry out associations - these objects were built under Ivan III the Great, he ruled 1462-1505 (you need to know, one of the largest characters in Russian history, the creator of the RCH).
We write: Aristotle Fioravanti - an outstanding Italian architect, lived in the middle - end of the XV century. By the way, even for high school students, the translation of years into centuries is difficult. Will explain, 14 62 - add 1 to the first 2 digits of a 4-digit year (14+1=15), and remember that it is correct to write the age in Roman numerals!
Further, Name at least two areas of its activity and give a brief description of them. . What are directions? It is convenient to explain this either by the goals of the politician (for example, the expansion of the country's territory), or by the types of activity (military leadership, reformist).
We write: “The main activities of A. Fioravanti were:
1) architecture
2) engineering
3) military activity.
Participated in the military campaigns of Ivan the Third against Novgorod the Great, Tver, Kazan Khanate.
Nuances. If there is not much information (the personality is rather dark), it is logical to “inflate” the available information: he is both an architect and an engineer.
They ask for at least 2 directions - write three, insure against incorrect wording that is not credited.
If you don't know the dates, don't write, they are not required of you. But, it is better to show knowledge, especially since 1478 - the subordination of Novgorod - one of key dates history and a seriously preparing graduate is known.
Each new thought on a new line. And you won’t get confused, and visually “expand” the answer!
Show your intelligence, it attracts points, part C is checked by experts, they will be pleased to watch the work of a knowledgeable student. Architect - Russian architect, Assumption Cathedral - wedding place for kings.
And completion. Indicate the results of its activities in each of these areas.
We write : “The results of A. Fioravanti's activity were the design of the architectural appearance of the historical center of Moscow - the Kremlin.
Thus, the foreigner Aristotle Fioravanti became an important character in Russian history, we still enjoy his creations.”
What do we take into account? We adapt as much as possible to the wording of the task, avoiding possible misunderstandings when checking ( "You didn't write that!").
Summing up, we draw a conclusion. A must for any creative challenge!
As a result, here is our portrait:
Aristotle Fioravanti - an outstanding Italian architect, lived in the middle - end of the XV century.
The main activities of A. Fioravanti were:
1) architecture
2) engineering
3) military activity.
Fioravanti arrived in Russia at the invitation of the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan the Third, built the main cathedral of the country - the Assumption in the Moscow Kremlin. This is the place of wedding to the kingdom of all Russian monarchs.
The architect (architect) designed the new red brick walls of the Moscow Kremlin, which have been standing for more than five centuries.
Fioravanti - engineer, head of Russian artillery in the army of Ivan III. During the campaign against Novgorod in 1478 he built the country's first pontoon bridge across the Volkhov.
Participated in the military campaigns of Ivan III to Novgorod the Great, Tver, Kazan Khanate.
The results of A. Fioravanti's activity was the design of the architectural appearance of the historical center of Moscow - the Kremlin.
In addition, his engineering and military talents made it possible to successfully continue the process of uniting Russia around Moscow, creating a Russian centralized state.
Thus, the foreigner Aristotle Fioravanti became an important character in Russian history, we still enjoy his creations.
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