Historical portrait of Nicholas I. Material for preparing for the Unified State Examination (GIA) in history (Grade 11) on the topic: The reign of Nicholas I. Information card
Materials for preparing for the exam on the topic "Russian Empire under NicholasI(1825-1855)"
Explanatory text for the block
The black-and-white booth is a traditional symbol of Nicholas's reign. On the sides are the conditional figures of a soldier and an official (the reliance of the Nikolaev regime on the armed forces and the bureaucracy).
Domestic policy. The reign of Nicholas I began with the Decembrist uprising (December 14, 1825), which, however, was defeated (1). Repression fell upon the Decembrists, five leaders were executed, hundreds were exiled to Siberia and the Caucasus (2). After the uprising, the emperor strengthened the repressive organs, at the head of which stood the III Department of the Imperial Chancellery with the corps of gendarmes attached to it (3). Censorship was drastically tightened.
The general reactionary nature of Nicholas I's policy did not rule out reforms in certain areas. In the field of management, the most important reform was the codification of legislation, carried out by a group of lawyers led by M.M. Speransky. In 1832, a 15-volume Code of Laws of the Russian Empire appeared, which included all the laws in force (4).
The opposition was represented by liberal and revolutionary circles, which were subjected to repression by the authorities. The most significant was the circle of Petrashevites (named after the leader M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky), in 1849, brutally crushed by the authorities (5). The activities of the opposition were much more significant not in the sphere of practical politics, but in the sphere of ideology (see the Culture section).
Foreign policy. The main directions of Russia's foreign policy under Nicholas I were the southern (the problem of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, which went down in history as the Eastern Question, the strengthening of Russia's positions in the Balkans and the Transcaucasus) and the western (the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe, the desire to prevent the creation of a broad anti-Russian coalition of Western powers).
In 1826-1828. Russia fought with Iran and received Eastern Armenia (the current Republic of Armenia) according to the Turkmenchay peace (6). In 1828-1829. there was a Russian-Turkish war, caused by the desire of Russia to support the Greek uprising against the Turks. By Greece became independent to the world of Adrianople, Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia became autonomous, and Russia received the mouth of the Danube and the Black Sea coast from Anapa to Poti. These wars have strengthened the authority of Russia in the world.
At the same time, throughout the reign of Nicholas I, the Caucasian War continued (8). The confrontation of the highlanders of Russia took a religious form and began to take place under the slogan of ghazavat (holy war between Muslims and infidels). The struggle was led by imams (religious leaders). Imam Shamil created an imamat (theocratic state) in Chechnya and Dagestan and for a long time successfully resisted the tsarist troops. Only in 1859 (that is, after the death of Nicholas I) was he taken prisoner, and hostilities in the western Caucasus continued until 1864.
In Europe, Russia pursued a consistent policy of combating the revolutionary movement (the revolutionaries stigmatized tsarism as the "gendarme of Europe"). Nicholas I intended to send troops to suppress the revolution in France in 1830, but they were needed to suppress the national liberation uprising in Poland (9). In 1849, Russian troops, at the request of the Austrians, crushed the revolution in Hungary (10).
In the middle of the XIX century. Nicholas I came up with a program for the division of Turkish possessions (he called the Ottoman Empire "the sick man of Europe"). However, these intentions of Russia opposition to England, France and Austria. As a result, the Crimean War, which began in 1853 as an ordinary Russian-Turkish war, also became a war between Russia and England and France (11). During the war, the military-technical backwardness of Russia affected, and she was defeated.
Economy. The main new phenomenon of economic life began in the 1830s. industrial revolution (transition from manual to machine labor) (12). The revolution manifested itself not only in industry, but also in transport (the construction of the first railways, the appearance of steamboats). The successful financial reform carried out in 1839-1843 also contributed to the development of the economy. Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin (13). However, in general, the economy of Russia during this period developed slowly due to the preservation of serfdom.
Public relations. The main problem is the liberation of the peasants. Nicholas I understood the harm of serfdom and the danger of its further preservation, but, fearing the discontent of the nobles, did not dare to take serious actions. The matter was limited to the creation of secret committees and discussion of the problem in a narrow circle of officials (14).
At the same time, the government, wanting to set an example for resolving the peasant issue, carried out a reform of the management of state peasants (known as the reform of P.D. perversions.
Culture. The main phenomena are the formation of new ideological currents and the transition to critical realism in the sphere of artistic culture.
The ideological justification for the policy of Nicholas I was the so-called theory of official nationality, developed by the Minister of Education, Count S.S. Uvarov ("Orthodoxy - autocracy - nationality") (16). The theorists of this trend substantiated the unacceptability of foreign influences for Russia. In 1836 P.Ya. Chaadaev, who sharply questioned the greatness of the past, present and future of Russia (17). In the intellectual environment about letters, fierce disputes broke out and two main points of view were formed - Westernism (the problem of Russia is lagging behind Western countries due to unfavorable circumstances) (18) and Slavophilism (the problem of Russia is a distortion of the natural development of Russia due to immoderate borrowing from the West) (19) . Later, a revolutionary-democratic trend emerged from Westernism, whose leaders (Herzen and others) began to develop the idea of Russia's "leap" into socialism through the peasant community (20).
AT the education sector, increased state control over educational institutions, the autonomy of universities was abolished (21).
The largest Russian scientist of this period is N.N. Lobachevsky, creator of non-Euclidean geometry (22).
In artistic culture, there was a gradual transition from sentimentalism and romanticism to critical realism (Fedotov in painting, Glinka in music, Shchepkin and Ostrovsky in the theater, Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev and others in literature) (23). Under conditions of censorship, literature and literary criticism (Belinsky) played an important social role and caused heated debate (24).
The development of architecture had its own specifics, where the Russian-Byzantine style was established (K.A. Ton, Cathedral of Christ the Savior) (25).
TRAINING
1. Working with history
Fill the table.
No. p / p |
Event |
the date |
Decembrist uprising in St. Petersburg (exact date) | ||
Uprising of the Chernihiv Regiment | ||
The activities of the Petrashevites | ||
Caucasian war | ||
Crimean War | ||
Capture of Shamil (date is out of period) | ||
The suppression of the uprising in Hungary by the Russian army | ||
Polish uprising | ||
Publication of the first "Philosophical Letter" P.Ya. Chaadaeva | ||
Russo-Persian War | ||
Russo-Turkish War | ||
Trial and reprisal against the Decembrists |
2. Work with personalities
Fill the table. (The right column indicates the minimum number of facts you need to know.)
historical figure |
Who is(s)? |
What did you do? What happened to him? |
A.N. Ostrovsky | ||
A.S. Menshikov | ||
OH. Benkendorf | ||
Aksakov, Kireevsky, Khomyakov | ||
Alyabiev, Varlamov, Glinka | ||
Bellingshausen and Lazarev | ||
Bryullov, Kiprensky, Ivanov, Venetsianov, Fedotov | ||
Bulgarin, Grech, Puppeteer | ||
V.G. Belinsky | ||
Voronikhin, Zakharov, Rossi, Montferrand, Beauvais, Tone | ||
Herzen and Ogarev | ||
Granovsky, Botkin, Kavelin | ||
E.F. Kankrin | ||
Karamzin, Solovyov, Pogodin | ||
Kornilov and Istomin | ||
Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky | ||
M.A. Miloradovich | ||
M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky | ||
MM. Speransky | ||
Mochalov, Shchepkin | ||
N.I. Lobachevsky | ||
P.D. Kiselev | ||
P.S. Nakhimov | ||
P.Ya. Chaadaev | ||
Pestel, Ryleev, Muraviev-Apostol, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Kakhovsky | ||
S.P. Trubetskoy | ||
EX. Uvarov | ||
3. Working with the table
Fill in the table “Main currents of social thought under NicholasI».
4. Working with the map
Find on the map:
1) territorial acquisitions of Russia under Nicholas I (Armenia, the mouth of the Danube, the coast from Anapa to Sochi);
2) Chechnya, Dagestan, Circassia;
3) Danubian principalities;
4) Sevastopol, Kars, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
5. Working with concepts
Define the terms.
1. Industrial revolution - ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
2. Bourgeoisie - ____________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
3. The proletariat - __________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________
4. Ghazavat - ______________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________
5. Muridism - _______________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________
6. Imamat -_______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
6. Working with sources
What socio-political views did the authors of the documents, from which the excerpts are given, adhere to?
1. “In the midst of the rapid decline of religious and civil institutions in Europe, with the widespread spread of destructive concepts, in view of the sad phenomena that surrounded us on all sides, it was necessary to strengthen the fatherland on solid foundations on which the prosperity, strength and life of the people are based; find the principles that make up the distinctive character of Russia and belong exclusively to her; to gather into one whole the sacred remains of her people and to strengthen the anchor of our salvation on them.
_________________________________________
2. “With the establishment of a representative order in Russia, Europe would get to know Russia better ... The introduction of representative government, for which the ground is so undoubtedly and so thoroughly prepared, promising Russia new happiness, new life, new vigor, new strength for the equally necessary as well as beneficial prosperity, - promises for the educated world a new charm [of Russia], incomparably better than the old one.
___________________________________________
3. “Autocracy is the main condition for the political existence of Russia. The Russian colossus rests on it, as on the cornerstone of its greatness. This truth is felt by the innumerable majority of Your Majesty's subjects: they feel it in full measure, although they are placed at different levels of civil life and differ in education and in their relationship to the government. The saving conviction that Russia lives and is guarded by the spirit of autocracy, strong, philanthropic, enlightened, must permeate public education and develop with it.
4 . “All evil comes primarily from the oppressive system of our government, oppressive regarding freedom of opinion, moral freedom, because there are no political freedom and claims in Russia ... May the ancient alliance of the government with the people, the state with the land, be restored, on the solid foundation of true indigenous Russians began. The government - unlimited freedom of government, exclusively belonging to it, the people - complete freedom of life, both external and internal, which is guarded by the government. Government - the right to act and, therefore, the law; people - the right of opinion and, consequently, of speech. Here is a Russian civil device! This is the only true civil order!” _______________________________________________
5. “The spirit of the communal system has long penetrated all areas folk life Russia. Each city, in its own way, was a community; it gathered general gatherings that decided the next issues by a majority of votes ... In the face of Europe, whose forces are behind long life exhausted in the struggle, a people comes forward, barely beginning to live. He retained only one fortress, which remained impregnable for centuries - his land community, and because of this is closer to social revolution...»
7. Working with the judgment of a historian
Read an excerpt from the work of the historian M. Polievktov and try to explain Why did the author come to this conclusion?
“Just as for Nicholas I the conservative program took on a dynastic character, so society learned to identify this order with the idea of statehood in general and brought up in itself a purely negative attitude towards the state principle. Disconnected from practical activity, society lost its real ground in its programs, but it also lost its real ground and the government, locking itself into bureaucratic paperwork. Both the government and society in the reign of Nicholas lost their sense of life.
CONTROL TASKS
Level A tasks
When completing the tasks of this part for each task, choose the correct answer, the only one of the four proposed, and circle it.
1. Which series of dates reflects Russia's major naval victories?
1) 1827, 1853 3) 1834, 1849
2) 1830, 1844 4) 1849, 1855
2. The domestic policy of Nicholas I is characterized
1) decisive action to prepare for the abolition of serfdom
2) censorship oppression, persecution of opponents of the existing system
3) lack of reforms in the public administration system
4) the abolition of the privileges of the Russian Orthodox Church
3. The defeat of the Decembrist uprising led to
1) the temporary decline of the revolutionary movement in Russia
2) the transition of the government to a policy of mass terror
3) mass emigration of figures of Russian culture
4) deprivation of the nobility of part of the privileges
4. The foreign policy of Nicholas I is characterized
1) the creation of a strong tripartite alliance of Russia, England and France
2) the desire to divide and subjugate the Austrian Empire
3) the fight against the revolutionary movement in Europe
4) large territorial acquisitions in Central Asia
5. Peace of Adrianople handed over to Russia
1) Moldavia and Wallachia 3) Western Georgia
2) islands at the mouth of the Danube 4) Bessarabia
6. Kireevsky, Aksakov - this is
1) revolutionary democrats 3) Slavophiles
2) Westerners 4) Petrashevists
7. Westernism is characterized
1) a positive attitude towards Russia during the reign of Nicholas I
2) the idea that Russia has its own, original path of development
3) calls for revolution and the overthrow of the autocracy
4) a positive assessment of the reforms of Peter I
8. The main support of Shamil was the territory
1) Circassia
2) Kabardy
3) Dagestan
9. The industrial revolution is
1) the mass exodus of peasants to the cities and their work in industrial enterprises
2) accelerated growth of industry and trade
3) the beginning of the use of machines in production
4) the emergence of large enterprises
10. Read an excerpt from the memoirs and indicate the year to which they refer.
“I heard a drumbeat, the meaning of which I then, as I did not serve in military service, did not accept. “This is the end of everything!” ... But then, I saw that the guns, aimed, were suddenly all raised barrels up. My heart was immediately relieved, as if a stone that had squeezed it tightly fell off! Then they began to untie those tied ... and brought them back to their former places on the scaffold. Some kind of carriage arrived, an officer came out - the adjutant wing - and brought some paper, filed immediately for reading. It proclaimed to us the granting of life by the sovereign emperor and, in return death penalty each, according to his guilt, a special punishment.
1) 1826 3) 1849
2) 1836 4) 1853
11. A.I. Herzen was the first to suggest that (b)
1) the backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western countries
2) the possibilities of Russia's path to socialism through the community
3) the need to convene a new Zemsky Sobor
4) the harmfulness of Peter's reforms
12. Westernism and Slavophilism were united by a similar attitude towards
1) the policy of Nicholas I 3) the countries of the West
2) pre-Petrine Russia 4) the reforms of Peter I
13. Under Nicholas I, a ministry appeared in Russia
1) on the affairs of serfs 3) internal affairs
2) state property 4) finance
14. The Turkmenchay peace was concluded in
1) 1828 3) 1849
2) 1829 4) 1856
15. Bellingshausen and Lazarev directed
1) the first Russian round-the-world expedition
2) the Russian fleet in the battle of Sinop
3) the expedition that discovered Antarctica
4) the defense of Sevastopol
16. Which of the following countries entered the Crimean War against Russia on the side of the Ottoman Empire?
A) Sardinian kingdom
B) Austrian Empire
B) Great Britain
D) Prussia
D) France
Specify the correct answer.
1) ABD 3) AED
2) ADE 4) VGE
17. Read an extract from the diplomatic dispatch of the Russian envoy and indicate the date of the events in question.
“I have just received and communicated to Prince Schwarzenberg a dispatch dated March 25 regarding his request for the concentration of our significant forces in the most threatened points of the Galician border and for permission for these troops to enter Austrian territory and contribute to the rapid suppression of the rebellion.”
18. The reason why Nicholas I did not dare to free the serfs
1) conviction in the inability of the peasants to live without the power of the landowners
2) misunderstanding of the harm of serfdom for the economy and morality
3) unwillingness to carry out any transformations at all
4) fear of the resistance of the nobility
19. In 1836 P.Ya. Chaadaev
1) called for the creation of a secret revolutionary society
2) critically commented on the historical experience of Russia
3) demanded the release of peasants with land
4) spoke in print in defense of the Decembrists
20. He refers to the opposition circles during the reign of Nicholas I
1) circle "Emancipation of labor"
2) a circle of Cretan brothers
3) circle N.V. Stankevich
4) "society number 11"
Level B assignments
These tasks require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers. .
At a lesson on the topic "Nicholas I. Domestic policy in 1825-1855." lists the factors that influenced the formation of the personality of Nicholas I. Determined the main objective his policy is to prevent an uprising in Russia. Freethinking in Russia is completely banned, Nicholas I wants to eliminate serfdom, weakens it, but does not dare to cancel it. The reasons for this indecision of the emperor are revealed. The financial reform carried out by Nicholas I is considered. The construction of railways and highways contributes to the economic recovery. The inconsistency of the development of culture and education in the country is emphasized.
Preliminary remarks
It must be said that in historical science for many years, an extremely negative image of Nicholas I himself (Fig. 2) and his thirty-year reign, which, with the light hand of Academician A.E. Presnyakov, called "the apogee of autocracy."
Of course, Nicholas I was not a born reactionary and, being an intelligent person, he perfectly understood the need for changes in the economic and political system of the country. But, being a military man to the marrow of his bones, he tried to solve all problems through the militarization of the state system, rigid political centralization and regulation of all parties. public life countries. It is no coincidence that almost all of its ministers and governors had general and admiral ranks - A.Kh. Benkendorf (Fig. 1), A.N. Chernyshev, P.D. Kiselev, I.I. Dibich, P.I. Paskevich, I.V. Vasilchikov, A.S. Shishkov, N.A. Protasov and many others. In addition, among the large cohort of Nikolaev dignitaries, a special place was occupied by the Baltic Germans A.Kh. Benkendorf, V.F. Adlerberg, K.V. Nesselrode, L.V. Dubelt, P.A. Kleinmichel, E.F. Kankrin and others, who, according to Nicholas I himself, unlike the Russian nobles, did not serve the state, but the sovereign.
Rice. 1. Benckendorff()
According to a number of historians (A. Kornilov), in domestic politics Nicholas I was guided by two fundamental Karamzin ideas, which he outlined in his note “On the Ancient and new Russia»: a) autocracy is the most important element of the stable functioning of the state; b) the main concern of the monarch is selfless service to the interests of the state and society.
A distinctive feature of the Nikolaev government was the colossal growth of the bureaucratic apparatus in the center and in the field. So, according to a number of historians (P. Zaionchkovsky, L. Shepelev), only for the first half of XIX in. the number of officials at all levels has grown more than six times. However, this fact cannot be assessed as negatively as it was done in Soviet historiography, because there were good reasons for this. In particular, according to academician S. Platonov, after the Decembrist uprising, Nicholas I completely lost confidence in the upper strata of the nobility. The emperor now saw the main support of the autocracy only in the bureaucracy, so he sought to rely on just that part of the nobility for which the only source of income was public service. It is no coincidence that it was under Nicholas I that a class of hereditary officials began to form, for whom public service became a profession (Fig. 3).
Rice. 2. Nicholas I ()
In parallel with the strengthening of the state and police apparatuses of power, Nicholas I began to gradually concentrate in his hands the solution of almost all more or less important issues. Quite often, when solving this or that important issue, numerous Secret Committees and Commissions were established, which were directly subordinate to the emperor and constantly replaced many ministries and departments, including the State Council and the Senate. It was these authorities, which included very few top dignitaries of the empire - A. Golitsyn, M. Speransky, P. Kiselev, A. Chernyshev, I. Vasilchikov, M. Korf and others - that were endowed with huge, including legislative, powers and exercised the operational leadership of the country.
Rice. 3. Officials of "Nikolaev Russia")
But the regime of personal power was most clearly embodied in His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, which arose back in the time of Paul I in 1797 G. Then under Alexander I in 1812 it turned into an office for considering petitions addressed to the highest name. In those years, the position of head of the office was occupied by Count A. Arakcheev, and she (the office) even then had considerable powers of authority. Almost immediately after accession to the throne, in January 1826, Nicholas I significantly expanded the functions of the personal office, giving it the value of the highest government agency Russian Empire. Within the framework of the Imperial Chancellery in first half of 1826 Three special departments were created:
I Department, which was headed by the Secretary of State of the Emperor A.S. Taneyev, was in charge of the selection and placement of personnel in the central executive authorities, controlled the activities of all ministries, and was also engaged in the production of ranks, the preparation of all imperial Manifestos and Decrees, and control over their execution.
II Department, headed by another state secretary of the emperor, M.A. Balugyansky, focused entirely on the codification of the dilapidated legislative system and the creation of a new Code of Laws of the Russian Empire.
III Branch, which was headed by a personal friend of the emperor, General A. Benckendorff, and after his death - General A.F. Orlov, completely focused on political investigation within the country and abroad. Initially, the basis of this Department was the Special Chancellery of the Ministry of the Interior, and then, in 1827, the Gendarme Corps was created, headed by General L.V. Dubelt, who formed the armed and operational support of the III Section.
While stating the fact that Nicholas I sought to preserve and strengthen the autocratic-feudal system through the strengthening of the bureaucratic and police apparatus of power, we must admit that in a number of cases he tried to solve the most acute domestic political problems of the country through the mechanism of reforms. It was this view of the domestic policy of Nicholas I that was characteristic of all major pre-revolutionary historians, in particular V. Klyuchevsky, A. Kiziwetter and S. Platonov. In Soviet historical science, starting with the work of A. Presnyakov "Apogee of Autocracy" (1927), special emphasis began to be placed on the reactionary nature of the Nikolaev regime. At the same time, a number of modern historians (N. Troitsky) rightly say that in their meaning and origin, the reforms of Nicholas I differed significantly from previous and future reforms. If Alexander I maneuvered between the new and the old, and Alexander II succumbed to the pressure of the new, then Nicholas I strengthened the old in order to more successfully resist the new.
Rice. 4. The first railway in Russia ()
Reforms of Nicholas I
a) The Secret Committee of V.P. Kochubey and his reform projects (1826-1832)
December 6, 1826 Nicholas I formed the First Secret Committee, which was supposed to sort through all the papers of Alexander I and determine which projects of state reforms could be taken by the sovereign as a basis for pursuing a reform policy. The formal head of this Committee was the Chairman of the State Council, Count V.P. Kochubey, and M.M. became the actual leader. Speransky, who long ago shook off the ashes of liberalism from his feet and became a staunch monarchist. During the existence of this Committee (December 1826 - March 1832) 173 official meetings were held, at which only two serious reform projects were born.
The first was the estate reform project, according to which it was supposed to cancel Peter's "Table of Ranks", which gave the right to military and civil ranks to receive nobility in order of length of service. The Committee proposed to establish such an order in which the nobility would be acquired only by birthright, or by "the highest award."
At the same time, in order to somehow encourage government officials and the emerging bourgeois class, the Committee proposed creating new classes for domestic bureaucrats and merchants - "bureaucratic" and "eminent" citizens who, like the nobles, would be exempted from the poll tax, recruitment duty. and corporal punishment.
The second project called for a new administrative reform. According to the project, the State Council was freed from a pile of administrative and judicial cases and retained only legislative functions. The Senate was divided into two independent institutions: the Governing Senate, consisting of all ministers, became the highest body of executive power, and the Judicial Senate - the highest body of state justice.
Both projects did not in the least undermine the autocratic system, and, nevertheless, under the influence of the European revolution and the Polish events of 1830-1831. Nicholas I shelved the first project and buried the second forever.
b) Codification of the laws of M.M. Speransky (1826-1832)
January 31, 1826 within the framework of the Imperial Chancellery, the II Department was created, which was entrusted with the task of reforming all legislation. The official head of the Department was Professor of St. Petersburg University M.A. Balugyansky, who taught legal sciences to the future emperor, but all the real work on the codification of legislation was carried out by his deputy, M. Speransky.
Summer 1826 M. Speransky sent four memos to the emperor with his proposals for compiling a new Code of Laws. According to this plan, codification was supposed to take place in three stages: 1. At first, it was supposed to collect and publish in chronological order all legislative acts, starting with the "Cathedral Code" of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich until the end of the reign of Alexander I. 2. At the second stage, it was planned to publish a Code of Acting Laws arranged in a subject-systematic order. 3. At the third stage, it was planned to draw up and publish a new Code of Laws systematized by legal branches.
At the first stage of the codification reform (1828-1830) almost 31 thousand legislative acts published in 1649-1825 were published, which were included in the 45-volume first "Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire". At the same time, 6 volumes of the second " Complete Assembly laws of the Russian Empire”, which included legislative acts issued under Nicholas I.
At the second stage of the codification reform (1830-1832) A 15-volume "Code of Laws of the Russian Empire" was prepared and published, which was a systematized (by branches of law) code of current legislation of 40,000 articles. Volumes 1-3 outlined the basic laws that determined the limits of competence and the order of office work of all government agencies and provincial offices. Volumes 4-8 contained laws on state duties, income and property. In the 9th volume, all laws on estates were published, in the 10th volume - civil and boundary laws. Volumes 11-14 contained police (administrative) laws, and volume 15 published criminal legislation.
January 19, 1833 The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was officially approved at a meeting of the State Council and entered into force.
c) Nikolai's estate reformI (1832-1845)
After completing work on the codification of laws, Nicholas I returned to the class projects of the Secret Committee of Count V. Kochubey. Initially, in 1832, an imperial Decree was issued, in accordance with which the middle class of "honorary citizens" of two degrees was established - "hereditary honorary citizens", where the descendants of personal nobles and guild merchants were enrolled, and "personal honorary citizens" for officials IV -X grades and graduates of higher educational institutions.
Then, in 1845 Another Decree was issued, directly related to the project of estate reform of the Secret Committee. Nicholas I did not dare to cancel Peter's "Table of Ranks", but, in accordance with his Decree, the ranks that were required to receive the nobility by seniority were significantly increased. Now the hereditary nobility was granted to civil ranks with the V (state councilor), and not with the VIII (college assessor) class, and the military, respectively, with the VI (colonel), and not with the XIV (ensign) class. Personal nobility for both civil and military ranks was established from the IX (titular adviser, captain), and not from the XIV class, as before.
d) The peasant question and the reform of P.D. Kiseleva (1837-1841)
In the second quarter of the XIX century. the peasant question still remained a headache for the tsarist government. Recognizing that serfdom was the powder magazine of the entire state, Nicholas I believed that its abolition could lead to even more dangerous social cataclysms than those that shook Russia during his reign. Therefore, in the peasant question, the Nikolaev administration limited itself to palliative measures aimed at somewhat softening the sharpness of social relations in the countryside.
To discuss the peasant question in 1828-1849 nine Secret Committees were created, in the depths of which more than 100 legislative acts were discussed and adopted to limit the power of landlords over serfs. For example, in accordance with these Decrees, landowners were forbidden to send their peasants to factories (1827), exile them to Siberia (1828), transfer serfs to the category of householders and pay off their debts (1833), sell peasants to retail (1841) etc. However, the real significance of these Decrees and the specific results of their application turned out to be negligible: the landowners simply ignored these legislative acts, many of which were advisory in nature.
The only attempt at a serious solution to the peasant question was the reform of the state village, carried out by General P.D. Kiselev in 1837-1841
To prepare a draft reform of the state village in April 1836 in the bowels of Own E.I. In the Office, a special V Division was created, which was headed by Adjutant General P. Kiselev. Consistent with the personal instructions of Nicholas I and his own vision this issue, he considered that in order to heal the ailments of the state-owned village, it was enough to create a good administration that could manage it accurately and prudently. That is why at the first stage of the reform, in 1837, the state village was removed from the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Finance and transferred to the Ministry of State Property, the first head of which was General P. Kiselev himself, who remained in this post until 1856.
Then, in 1838-1839, for the management of the state village on the ground, state chambers were created in the provinces and state district administrations in the counties. And only after that, in 1840-1841, the reform reached the volosts and villages, where several governing bodies were created at once: volost and rural gatherings, boards and reprisals.
After the completion of this reform, the government once again took up the problem of the owner (landlord) peasants, and soon the Decree “On obligated peasants” was born. (April1842), also developed on the initiative of P. Kiselev.
The essence of this Decree was as follows: each landowner, at his own discretion, could grant freedom to his serfs, but without the right to sell them their own allotments of land. All land remained the property of the landlords, and the peasants received only the right to use this land on a lease basis. For the possession of their own allotments of land, they were obliged, as before, to bear corvée and dues. However, according to the agreement that the peasant entered into with the landowner, the latter did not have the right: a) to increase the size of corvée and dues, and b) select or reduce the land allotment agreed upon by mutual agreement.
According to a number of historians (N. Troitsky, V. Fedorov), the Decree "On obligated peasants" was a step backwards compared to the Decree "On free cultivators", since that legislative act tore feudal relations between landlords and serfs, and new law kept them.
e) Financial reform E.F. Kancrina (1839-1843)
An active foreign policy and a constant increase in government spending on the maintenance of the state apparatus and the army caused an acute financial crisis in the country: the expenditure side of the state budget was almost one and a half times higher than its revenue side. The result of such a policy was the constant devaluation of the banknote ruble in relation to the silver ruble, and to late 1830s its real value was only 25% of the value of the silver ruble.
Rice. 5. Credit note after the Kankrin reform ()
In order to prevent the financial collapse of the state, at the suggestion of the long-term Minister of Finance Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin, it was decided to carry out a monetary reform. During the first phase of the reform, 1839, state credit notes were introduced (Fig. 5), which were equated to the silver ruble and could be freely exchanged for it. Then, after the accumulation of the necessary reserves of precious metals, the second stage of the reform was carried out. . From June 1843 the exchange of all banknotes in circulation for state credit notes began at the rate of one credit ruble for three and a half banknote rubles. Thus, the monetary reform of E. Kankrin significantly strengthened the country's financial system, but it was not possible to completely overcome the financial crisis, since the government continued to pursue the previous budget policy.
Bibliography
- Vyskochkov V.L. Emperor Nicholas I: man and sovereign. - St. Petersburg, 2001.
- Druzhinin N.M. State peasants and the reform of P.D. Kiselev. - M., 1958.
- Zayonchkovsky P.K. The government apparatus of autocratic Russia in the 19th century. - M., 1978.
- Eroshkin N.P. Feudal autocracy and its political institutions. - M., 1981.
- Kornilov A.A. The course of the history of Russia in the XIX century. - M., 1993.
- Mironenko S.V. Pages of the secret history of autocracy. - M., 1990.
- Presnyakov A.E. Russian autocrats. - M., 1990.
- Pushkarev S.G. History of Russia in the 19th century. - M., 2003.
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Tasks of the reign of Nicholas I Strengthening the autocracy * Strengthening His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery * Creation of committees under the control of the tsar * The theory of "official nationality" (Count Uvarov) Struggle against freethinking and the socio-political movement * Execution of the Decembrists * Reactionary university and censorship charters * III department: "higher police", control over the mood in society Bureaucratization * Further strengthening of the administrative apparatus * Codification of laws (M. Speransky)
Peasant question Facilitation of the position of peasants and serfs, in particular - Reform in the state village P. Kiseleva 1847 - Inventory reform in Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus Development of measures for the gradual abolition of serfdom Creation of secret committees to resolve the peasant question 1842 - Decree on "obliged peasants" Position of power The abolition of serfdom did not happen - the resistance of the nobility and the conservatism of the tsar interfered
Social policy Appointment to public office 1832, 1845 - restriction of the penetration of representatives of the 3rd estate into the nobility 1845 - Decree on majorates (indivisibility of noble estates during inheritance) Regarding the nobility Promotion social status Distribution of privileges - the creation of a class category of "honorary citizens" for people from the 3rd estate Encouragement of entrepreneurship In relation to the bourgeoisie
Foreign policy in the second quarter of the 19th century Tasks Struggle against the Polish liberation movement Suppression of the uprising in Poland The abolition of the constitution of 1815 The Kingdom of Poland is part of the Russian Empire The suppression of the revolutionary movement in Europe The struggle to resolve the "Eastern Question" in favor of Russia
"Eastern Question": three crises Early 20s. 19th century: liberation movement in Greece against the Ottoman yoke. Early 1930s. 19th century: uprising in Egypt, the threat of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. The beginning of the 50s. 19th century: dispute over "Palestinian shrines" between Russia and France
"Eastern question": the causes of crises The decline of the power of the Ottoman Empire. Turkey's desire to maintain its position in the international arena European countries for the strengthening of their positions in the Middle East region The growth of the liberation movement of the peoples that are part of the Ottoman Empire
Crisis of the 1920s 19th century Uprising in Greece Declaration of 1822 of the countries-participants of the "Holy Alliance" on the subordination of the Greeks to the legitimate ruler 1) "Collective protection" by Russia, England and France of the interests of Greece 2) Pressure on Turkey d. - Battle of Navarino. The defeat of the Turkish fleet by the squadrons of England, France, Russia
Russian-Iranian war Iran + England's support The desire to return the lands of Transcaucasia, lost by him under the Gulistan peace treaty with Russia - the Turkmenchay peace treaty Russia receives Eastern Armenia (Nachikhevan, Erivan khanates) Confirmation of Russia's exclusive right to have a navy in the Caspian Sea Iran's indemnity to Russia in 20 million rubles.
Russian-Turkish war Opening of the Black Sea straits for Russian ships Indemnity of Turkey to Russia in the amount of 33 million rubles. Russia crosses the mouth of the Danube with islands, the eastern coast of the Black Sea (from Anapa to Sukhumi), Akhaltsy, Akhalkalaki in Transcaucasia Russia's position in the Black Sea region was strengthened Gaining independence by Greece (since 1830), expanding the autonomy of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia England, France, Austria - neutrality with covert Turkish support Peace of Adrianople 1829
Crisis of the 30s 19th century The uprising in Egypt The refusal of European countries to help Turkey in the fight against the "rebellious" Egypt Were interested in securing positions in Egypt Provided military assistance to Turkey and thereby removed the threat of taking its capital Turkey England and France Russia 1833 - an alliance agreement between Russia and Turkey on mutual assistance + Secret article on the exclusive right of Russia to use the straits in case of war
Crisis of the 30s 19th century Rebellion in Egypt Turkey: an appeal to Russia for military assistance England, France, Russia, Austria: (London): 1) The decision to provide collective assistance to Turkey 2) All-European control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles
Crimean War of the year: causes and plans The struggle of Russia and France to strengthen their influence in the Middle East is an aggravation of the "Eastern question" Russia: to intensify policy in the East England: a plan to colonize the Middle East France: to strengthen the throne of Louis Bonaparte with a small victorious war Austria: prevent the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans Turkey: maintain its positions in the Balkans and return the Transcaucasus
Crimean War of the year: the course of hostilities
The Crimean War of the year: a chronicle of events November 1853 - Admiral Nakhimov, the defeat of the Turkish squadron in the Sinop Bay March 1854 - England and France took the side of Turkey The first stage of the war Bombing of Odessa, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, the Solovetsky Monastery September 1854 - Allied landing in Crimea September 1854 - September 1855 - Siege of Sevastopol (England, France): Defense leaders - Admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin Engineer Totleben Heroes of defense: Peter Koshka, sister of mercy Daria Sevastopolskaya, surgeon Nikolai Pirogov, writer lieutenant Leo Tolstoy Second stage of the war
Reasons for the defeat of Russia and the significance of the war Reasons for the defeat: Economic backwardness Military-technical backwardness Outdated weapons Lack of railway transport Lack of steam ships Poor supply of the army Recruitment system for recruiting into the army Significance of the war: Undermined the international prestige of Russia Defeat played the role of a catalyst that accelerated political transformations in the country Liberation began wrestling in the Balkans
Russia and the Caucasus Plans of the Russian Command (General A. Yermolov) North Caucasus Creation of a new support line of the fortress 1817 Powerful offensive of Russian troops on Chechnya and Dagestan 20s of the 19th century The beginning of the liberation movement of the peoples of the Caucasus from aggression by Russia
The Caucasian War of y.g. - brutal suppression of uprisings in Kabarda, Adygeya, Chechnya Spiritual improvement of every true believer Equality of all Muslims before Allah Muridism A Muslim cannot be under the rule of a non-Muslim king
Caucasian War y.y. e. 19th century The formation of an imamate on the territory of Chechnya and Dagestan - a military-theocratic state that declared gazavat to Russia Ghazavat Holy war of Muslims against infidels Imam Spiritual and secular head of state, who had unlimited power Shamil ()
Accession of Kazakhstan to Russia Lands of Kazakhstan Pretenders: Kokand, Khiva khanates, Russia, Qin Empire 1853 – General V. Perovsky's expedition to Kazakhstan. The defeat of the army of the Kokand Khan at the Ak-Mosque e. 19th century The younger and middle zhuzes became part of Russia. 19th century Senior zhuz attached to Russia
slide 2
Domestic politics
The years of the reign - 1825-1855. The main task is to strengthen the power of the nobles, relying on the army and the bureaucracy
slide 3
Domestic policy. Main Events
Creation of the 2nd branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery Purpose: putting in order the existing laws Assigned to: Speransky M.M. Result: 1832 - the creation of a complete set of laws of the Russian Empire -
slide 4
1826 - creation of the 3rd branch of the Own E.I.V. Offices headed by A.Kh.
Slide 5
1839-1841 - reform of the Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin (the silver ruble was put into circulation) Reform of the state peasants of the Minister of State. Property of P.D.Kiselev (1837-1842) What gave: partial self-government, the procedure for allocating land to peasants. 1842 - Decree on obligated peasants (landlords could give freedom to kr-us) 30s. 19th century - the beginning of the industrial revolution 1837 - the first railway to Tsarskoye Selo 1851 - the Nikolaevskaya railway was opened
slide 6
Social thought in the 1830-1850s.
Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov - "Theory of official nationality" - "autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality" Westerners (Granovsky, Kavelin, Botkin, Katkov) - Russia should develop along the European path Circles of the Kritsky brothers, Granovsky, Stankevich, "Society of wisdom" - discussion of the future path of Russia Slavophiles (Khomyakov, Kireevsky, Aksakov, Samarin) - community, traditions and Orthodoxy 1836 - P. Ya Chaadaev "Philosophical letters (criticism of the serfdom) Russia needs reforms
Slide 7
Revolutionary ideology (the possibility of socialism in Russia): The basis of socialism is the community - revolution as a method of struggle Herzen, Ogarev, Belinsky - the emergence of the Butashevich-Petrashevsky circle (Saltykov-Shchedrin and Dostoevsky were there) - defeated in 1849 - foundation of the Russian printing house by the Wave, where the magazine "Polar Star" was printed
Slide 8
Foreign policy
2 main directions: 1. suppression of revolutionary movements outside the country (Revolution in Hungary in 1849) - "gendarme of Europe" 2. solution of the "Eastern question" - dominance in the Black Sea, interests in the Balkans
Slide 9
Eastern question
1. War with Persia (Iran) - 1826-1828 The Turkmanchai world - the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates went to Russia 2. War with Turkey - 1828-1829. Andrianople peace - South Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus went to Russia
slide 10
3. Caucasian War - 1817-1864 Terms: murids, imam, gazavat Names: Shamil, Yermolov 4. Aigun (1858) and Beijing (1860) treaties - Russia received the Ussuri Territory
Slide 11
Crimean War
Reasons for the war: the desire to solve the "Eastern question" (control and free passage in the Black Sea, the Bosporus, the Dardanelles and advantages in the Balkans) Reason for the war: Russia demanded to be granted the right to dispose of Christian churches in Palestine. She was denied
slide 12
Crimean War. battles
October 1853 - Turkey declares war on Russia (it is part of the coalition together with England and France) November 1853 - the battle in the Bay of Sinop (Admiral PS Nakhimov) - the last battle of sailing ships. Defeat of the Turks. The defeats were inflicted on the Turks and their allies in the Caucasus, in Kronstadt, in the Solovetsky Monastery, Odessa and on Far East
slide 13
September 1854 - allied landing in Crimea Siege of Sevastopol - 11 months Its defense was led by: V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin. Participants: E.I. Totleben, L.N. Tolstoy, N.I. Pirogov. August 1855 - Surrender of Sevastopol 1856 - Treaty of Paris
Slide 14
Results of the Crimean War under the Paris Peace Treaty
Russia lost the right to have a navy and military installations on the Black Sea The Danube principalities and the Christians of the Ottoman Empire came under the care of the great powers Russia lost the mouth of the Danube and South Bessarabia Russia returned the Kars fortress in the Caucasus to Turkey The war showed the backwardness of feudal Russia
slide 15
Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century. Education
1. Universities were opened in St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Kyiv, Kazan, Tartu, Odessa 2. The Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was opened 3. The St. Petersburg Technological Institute, the Moscow Mining and Land Survey Institutes, etc. were founded. 6% of the population
The period 1825-1855 refers to the reign of Emperor Nicholas I. This segment national history characterized by the fight against revolutionary sentiments after the Decembrist uprising, the peasant, financial reforms and the codification of Russian legislation. In foreign policy highlight such areas as the suppression of revolutionary movements in Europe, the expansion of territories in the Caucasus and the solution of the Eastern Question.
The accession of Nicholas to the throne is associated with such an event as the uprising of the Decembrists on Senate Square on December 14, 1825. Its reasons were the dissatisfaction of the participants in the uprising with serfdom, the lack of freedom of speech, the press and political rights. The uprising was crushed, and Nicholas I played a big role in this.
He tried to peacefully eliminate this performance and sent General Miloradovich to the rebels, who was killed by a Decembrist. As a result, Nicholas ordered the troops to shoot the rebels with cannons, after which the uprising was crushed. The consequence of this event was the strengthening of state control in all spheres of society and the creation of the III branch of the office, whose activities were aimed at ensuring that there were no more uprisings like the Decembrist one.
An important event was the codification of Russian legislation in the 1830s and the creation of the Code of Acting Laws of the Russian Empire in 15 volumes. The reasons for this were that the last adopted collection of laws, the Cathedral Code, was already outdated, and after the reforms of Peter I and palace coups, many new decrees and laws appeared that needed to be unified. M.M. played a big role in this. Speransky. It was he who supervised all the work, gave recommendations to subordinates, resolved difficulties and reported to the king on achievements.
The consequence was that now Russian legislation has become systematic and easy to understand for all citizens.
An important event in foreign policy was the Crimean War (1853-1856), the main stage of which falls on this period. Its cause was the aggravation of the Eastern Question and the dissatisfaction of European countries with the fact that Russia supports the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples. The first stage of the war was successful for Russia (Sinop battle), but after the European countries joined Turkey, Russia was defeated. An outstanding role in this war was played by Admiral Nakhimov, who participated in several major battles. So, it was he who commanded the fleet in the battle of Sinop, drew up battle tactics and destroyed 9 enemy ships with minimal losses of Russian soldiers. Nakhimov also led the defense of Sevastopol, offered brilliant ideas to cut off enemy ships from the city. The war was unsuccessful for Russia, which was forced to flood the Black Sea Fleet in the bay of Sevastopol so that enemy ships would not enter the bay.
During this period, many reforms were carried out in domestic policy: the financial reform of Kankrin, the reform in the state village of Kiselev, inventory reform. Uvarov's "theory of official nationality" was also approved. In foreign policy, Russia participated in the suppression of revolutionary movements in European countries: in Poland in 1830-1831 and in Hungary in 1849. Also during this period, Russia conducted two successful wars, which made it possible to annex new territories and strengthen influence in the Caucasus and Black Sea coast Russian-Iranian (1826-1828) and Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829).
Also, it was under Nicholas that the industrial revolution began in Russia, railways new businesses are opening.
This period cannot be assessed unambiguously. There were both positive events (legislative codification, successful wars with Turkey and Iran, financial and inventory reform, an attempt to solve the peasant problem with the Kiselyov reform), and negative ones (the Decembrist uprising, the unsuccessful Crimean War). One way or another, this period influenced the further history of Russia, to a greater extent on the implementation of the Great Reforms of Alexander II. Thus, the failures in the Crimean War showed the army and navy left and the need for military reform, which would be carried out in 1861-1874. And the attempt to solve the peasant question by Kiselyov's reform became some impetus for the peasant reform of 1861, as a result of which the peasants would receive personal freedom. The code of laws of the Russian Empire, created during this period, will be valid until the October Revolution of 1917. Defeat in the Crimean War will deprive Russia of the right to have a fleet and fortresses on the Black Sea, which will last until 1871, until the London Conference, when the terms of the Paris Peace will be revised and Russia will restore the status great power. This period of history was an important milestone in the history of the country and determined many future trends.
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