Describe the functions of the language. Language as a social phenomenon. Language functions Language functions and expand their content
Language is usually defined in two aspects: the first is a system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical means that are a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, serving as the most important means of communication between people, i.e. language is a social phenomenon associated in its origin and development with the human collective; the second is a kind of speech characterized by certain stylistic features (Kazakh language, colloquial language).
Language as the main means of human communication is designed in such a way that it is adequate to the intentions and desires of an individual linguistic personality and tasks. human community perform various functions. In its most general form, language functions are understood as the use of potential properties of language means in speech for various purposes.
Language is not a natural phenomenon, and, therefore, does not obey biological laws. Language is not inherited, not passed on from older to younger. It originates in society. Arises spontaneously, gradually turns into a self-organizing system, which is designed to fulfill certain functions.
The first main function of language is cognitive(i.e. cognitive), meaning that language is the most important means of obtaining new knowledge about reality. The cognitive function connects language with human mental activity.
Without language, human communication is impossible, and without communication there can be no society, there cannot be a full-fledged personality (for example, Mowgli).
The second main function of language is communicative, which means that language is the most important means of human communication, i.e. communication, or the transmission from one person to another of a message for one purpose or another. Communicating with each other, people convey their thoughts, feelings, influence each other, achieve mutual understanding. The language gives them the opportunity to understand each other and to work together in all spheres of human activity.
The third main function is emotional and motivating. It is designed not only to express the attitude of the author of the speech to its content, but also to influence the listener, reader, interlocutor. It is realized in the means of evaluation, intonation, exclamation, interjections.
Other language features:
– thought-forming, since language not only conveys thought, but also forms it;
– accumulative is a function of storing and transmitting knowledge about reality. In written monuments, oral folk art, the life of a people, nation, the history of native speakers is recorded;
– phatic (contact-setting) function-
tion - the function of creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors (greeting formulas at a meeting and parting, exchange of remarks about the weather, etc.). The content and form of phatic communication depend on gender, age, social status, interlocutor relationships, but in general they are standard and minimally informative. Phatic communication helps to overcome lack of communication skills, disunity;
– conative function - the function of assimilation of information by the addressee, associated with empathy (the magical power of spells or curses in an archaic society or advertising texts in a modern one);
– appellative function - the function of an appeal, an inducement to certain actions (forms of the imperative mood, incentive sentences, etc.);
– aesthetic function - a function of aesthetic impact, manifested in the fact that the reader or listener begins to notice the text itself, its sound and verbal texture. A single word, turn, phrase begins to like or dislike. Speech can be perceived as something beautiful or ugly, i.e. as an aesthetic object;
– metalinguistic function (speech commentary) - the function of interpreting linguistic facts. The use of a language in a metalinguistic function is usually associated with difficulties in verbal communication, for example, when talking with a child, a foreigner, or another person who does not fully know the given language, style, or professional variety of the language. The metalinguistic function is realized in all oral and written statements about the language - in lessons and lectures, in dictionaries, educational and scientific literature about the language.
LANGUAGE - social processed, historically changeable signs system serving as the main means of communication and represented by different forms of existence, each of which has at least one of the forms of implementation - oral or written.
SPEECH - this is one of the types of human communicative activity i.e. using language to communicate with others
Types of speech activity:
speaking
listening
The main functions of the language are:
communicative (function of communication);
thought-forming (function of embodiment and expression of thought);
expressive (function of expressing the internal state of the speaker);
aesthetic (the function of creating beauty by means of language).
Communicative function lies in the ability of language to serve as a means of communication between people. The language has the units necessary for constructing messages, the rules for their organization, and ensures the emergence of similar images in the minds of the participants in communication. Language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between the participants in communication.
From the point of view of the culture of speech, the communicative function involves the installation of participants in speech communication on the fruitfulness and mutual usefulness of communication, as well as a general focus on the adequacy of speech understanding.
Thought-forming function lies in the fact that language serves as a means of designing and expressing thoughts. The structure of the language is organically connected with the categories of thinking. "The word, which alone is capable of making a concept an independent unit in the world of thoughts, adds to it a lot of itself," wrote the founder of linguistics Wilhelm von Humboldt (Humboldt V. Selected Works on Linguistics. - M., 1984. P. 318).
This means that the word singles out and shapes the concept, and at the same time, a relationship is established between the units of thinking and the sign units of the language. That is why W. Humboldt believed that “language should accompany thought. Thought, not lagging behind language, should follow from one of its elements to another and find in language a designation for everything that makes it coherent” (Ibid., p. 345) . According to Humboldt, “in order to correspond to thinking, language, as far as possible, must correspond with its structure to the internal organization of thinking” (ibid.).
The speech of an educated person is distinguished by the clarity of the presentation of his own thoughts, the accuracy of retelling other people's thoughts, consistency and informativeness.
Expressive the function allows the language to serve as a means of expressing the internal state of the speaker, not only to communicate some information, but also to express the speaker's attitude to the content of the message, to the interlocutor, to the situation of communication. Language expresses not only thoughts, but also emotions of a person. The expressive function involves the emotional brightness of speech within the framework of etiquette accepted in society.
Artificial languages do not have an expressive function.
aesthetic the function is to ensure that the message in its form, in unity with the content, satisfies the aesthetic sense of the addressee. The aesthetic function is characteristic primarily for poetic speech (works of folklore, fiction), but not only for her - both journalistic and scientific speech, and everyday colloquial speech can be aesthetically perfect.
The aesthetic function presupposes the richness and expressiveness of speech, its correspondence to the aesthetic tastes of the educated part of society.
language is system(from Greek. systema - something made up of parts). And if this is so, then all its constituent parts should not be a random set of elements, but some sort of ordered set of them.
What is the systemic nature of the language? First of all, the fact that the language has a hierarchical organization, in other words, it distinguishes various levels(from lowest to highest), each of which corresponds to a certain linguistic unit.
Usually there are the following levels of the language system: phonemic, morphemic, lexical and syntactic. Let us name and characterize the language units corresponding to them.
Phoneme- the simplest unit, indivisible and insignificant, serving to distinguish between minimal meaningful units (morphemes and words). For example: P ort - b ort, st about l - st at l.
Morpheme- the minimum significant unit that is not used independently (prefix, root, suffix, ending).
Word (lexeme)- a unit that serves to name objects, processes, phenomena, signs or points to them. This is the minimum nominative(named) unit language, consisting of morphemes.
The syntactic level corresponds to two language units: a phrase and a sentence.
phrase is a combination of two or more words between which there is a semantic and / or grammatical connection. A phrase, like a word, is a nominative unit.
Sentence- the main syntactic unit that contains a message about something, a question or a prompt. This unit is characterized by semantic formality and completeness. In contrast to the word - the nominative unit - it is communicative unit, as it serves to convey information in the process of communication.
Between the units of the language system, certain relations. Let's talk about them in more detail. The "mechanism" of the language is based on the fact that each language unit is included in two intersecting rows. One row, linear, horizontal, we directly observe in the text: this syntagmatic line, where units of the same level are combined (from the Greek. syntagma - something connected). At the same time, units are more low level serve as building material for higher-level units.
An example of syntagmatic relations is the compatibility of sounds: [high Moscow]; grammatical compatibility of words and morphemes: play football, play the violin; blue ball, blue notebook, under+windows+nickname; lexical compatibility: desk, work at the table, mahogany table -"piece of furniture" plentiful table, dietary table - food, food, passport office, information desk"department in the institution" and other types of relations of language units.
The second row is non-linear, vertical, not given in direct observation. it paradigmatic series, i.e. a given unit and other units of the same level associated with it by one or another association - formal, meaningful similarity, opposition and other relationships (from the Greek. paradeigma - example, sample).
The simplest example of paradigmatic relations is the paradigm (sample) of the declension or conjugation of a word: house, ~ a, ~ at ...; I'm going, ~eat, ~et... Paradigms form interrelated meanings of the same polysemantic word ( table– 1. piece of furniture; 2. food, nutrition; 3. department in the institution); synonymous rows (cold-blooded, restrained, imperturbable, balanced, calm); antonymic pairs (wide - narrow, open - close); units of the same class (verbs of movement, kinship designations, tree names, etc.), etc.
It follows from the foregoing that linguistic units are stored in our linguistic consciousness not in isolation, but as interconnected elements of a kind of "blocks" - paradigms. The use of these units in speech is determined by their intrinsic properties, by what place this or that unit occupies among other units of this class. Such storage of "linguistic material" is convenient and economical. In everyday life, we usually do not notice any paradigms. Nevertheless, they are one of the foundations of knowledge of the language. After all, it is no coincidence that when a student makes a mistake, the teacher asks him to decline or conjugate this or that word, form the necessary form, clarify the meaning, choose the most appropriate word from the synonymic series, in other words, turn to the paradigm.
So, the consistency of the language is manifested in its level organization, the existence of various language units that are in certain relationships with each other.
Similar information.
The difference between speech and language
The difference between speech and language is that speech is an individual mental phenomenon, while language as a system - a social phenomenon. Speech- dynamic, mobile, situationally determined. Language- a balanced system of internal relations. It is constant and stable, invariant in its basic patterns. The elements of the language are organized into a system according to the formal-semantic principle, they function in speech on a communicative-semantic basis. In speech, general linguistic patterns are always manifested concretely, situationally and contextually. Knowledge about the language system, which is formulated in the form of rules, can be acquired theoretically, while mastering speech requires appropriate practice, as a result of which speech skills and abilities are created.
The original unit of the language is a word and original unit of speech- a sentence or phrase. For the theoretical purposes of the language being studied, it is important to have complete knowledge of its system. For practical purposes in high school it is necessary to possess such a volume of language material that is sufficient for limited communicative purposes and is real for mastering it in given conditions.
Speech is the use of language in communication. The starting point of speech actions is a speech situation when a person has a need or need to perform one or another speech action. At the same time, verbal communication takes place in any specific conditions: in one place or another, with one or another participant in the communicative act. In each speech situation, one or another function of the language is realized in order to achieve the goal for which the communicative act is performed. So, speech can be characterized as follows: it is a concrete, private, random, individual, non-systemic, variable phenomenon.
Language is a specific sign system that a person uses to communicate with other people. Thanks to language, a person has a universal means of accumulating and transmitting information, and without this, the development of human society would not be possible. The system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical means, which are a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, serving as the most important means of communication between people.
Different scientists distinguish a different number of language functions, since language has many purposes in human society. The functions of the language are not equivalent. However, the main function is already reflected in the definition of the language. Language- the main means of communication (or communication). In human speech activity language features combined in different combinations. In each specific speech message, one function out of several may predominate.
Language features represented by the following set: communicative(ensuring mutual understanding of people) - the function of being the basis of thought; expressive(to express attitude towards what is being said). The dominant position of the communicative function is determined by the frequency of language implementation precisely for the purpose of communication, which determines its main properties.
Availability ternary language function: expressions, appeals, representations. In earlier terminology: expression, motivation, representation. They actually represent the various purposes of speech utterances: representative- message, expressive- expression of emotions appellative- motivation to action. These functions are not only hierarchically correlated (the representative function has a dominant role), but it is also possible to have a language implementation with the complete predominance of one of them.
six functions are defined as orientations, attitudes towards the six elements of the situation. First three: referential(communicative) - orientation to the context (referent), expressive(emotive) - orientation to the addresser (an expression of the speaker's attitude to what he is talking about), conative(appellative) - orientation to the addressee. There are also additional ones derived from the given triad (and according to the model of the speech situation): phatic(focus on contact), metalinguistic(focus on code, language), poetic(directed to the message). The verbal structure of a message depends primarily on the predominant function.
Functions of language and speech:
1) in relation to humanity as a whole ( communicative function as a unity communication and generalizations);
2) in relation to historically specific societies, groups of communicating (functions as spheres use language and speech: functions of servicing everyday communication; communication in the field of primary, secondary, higher education, communication in business, in the field of science, in the field of production, in the field of socio-political and state activities, in the field of mass communication, in the field of religion, in the field of interethnic, regional and international communication);
3) in relation to the components of the current communication situation: representative, expressive (emotive), contact-setting (phatic), impact function, metalinguistic and poetic, or aesthetic;
4) in relation to the goals and results of statements in specific speech actions, or acts of communication (message, expression of an internal state, request for information, directive function; concretization of these functions in the theory of speech acts).
The most fundamental are communicative function and function of way of expressing thought (cognitive and cognitive function). In the communicative function, there are: 1) a function communication– as the main F. Ya., one of the sides of the communicative function, which consists in the mutual exchange statements members of the language community; 2) the function of the message - as one of the sides of the communicative function, which consists in the transfer of some logical content; 3) the function of influence, the implementation of which is: a) a voluntarily function - an expression of the will of the speaker; b) expressive function - a message to the statement of expressiveness; c) emotive function - the expression of feelings, emotions.
3. The concept of "culture of speech". The main features of cultural speech
A culture of speech- Proficiency in oral and written literary language(rules of pronunciation, word usage, grammar and style). Used in modern science in two main meanings: 1) socio-historically conditioned modern speech culture of society; 2) a set of requirements for the quality of oral and writing native speakers of the literary language from the point of view of a socially perceived linguistic ideal, the taste of a certain era. In mastering the culture of speech, they usually distinguish two stages. The first is associated with the development of literary and linguistic norms by students. Possession of them ensures the correctness of speech, which forms the basis of individual K. r. The second stage involves the creative application of norms in different situations of communication, including speech skills, the ability to choose the most accurate, stylistically and situationally appropriate options.
Literacy - traditional sign"cultural" language. signs: correctness, purity, accuracy, expressiveness, consistency, relevance, richness.
4. Forms of existence of the national language .
Language is a complex phenomenon that exists in several forms. These include: dialects, vernacular, jargon and literary language.
Dialects are local dialects of Russia, limited territorially. They exist only in oral speech, they serve for everyday communication.
Vernacular is the speech of people that does not correspond to the literary norms of the Russian language (ridiculitis, kolidor, without a coat, a driver).
Jargon is the speech of social and professional groups of people united by a common occupation, interests, etc. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology. Sometimes the word slang is used as a synonym for the word jargon. Argo is the speech of the lower classes of society, the criminal world, beggars, thieves and swindlers.
Literary language is the highest form of the national language, processed by masters of the word. It has two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is subject to orthoepic and intonational forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of an addressee has no effect, it allows processing, editing.
5. Literary language as the highest form of the national language .
The Russian literary language is the highest form of the national language and the basis of the culture of speech. It serves various spheres of human activity - politics, legislation, culture, verbal art, office work, etc. Many prominent scientists emphasize the importance of the literary language both for an individual and for the whole nation. It is noteworthy that not only Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, but also Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov, Likhachev emphasized the importance of mastering the norms of the Russian literary language. Wealth, clarity of expression of thought, accuracy testify to the richness of the general culture of a person, to a high degree of his professional training.
In the scientific linguistic literature, the main features of the literary language are defined:
· processing,
· Sustainability,
· Obligation,
The presence of oral and written form,
・Normalization
The presence of functional styles.
The Russian language exists in two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is sound, obeys orthoepic and intonational forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of an addressee has no effect, it allows processing, editing.
6. Language norm, its role in the formation and functioning of the literary language .
The founder of the first Russian philological school is Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, who put forward the criterion of historical expediency in streamlining the norms of the literary language. He distinguished the styles of the literary language depending on the stylistic characteristics of the language units, for the first time defining the norms of the literary language.
Yakov Karlovich Grot was the first to systematize and theoretically comprehend the set of spelling laws of the literary language. A system of grammatical and stylistic marks was developed for his normative "dictionary of the Russian language".
New stage in the codification of norms, it is associated with the names of Ushakov, Vinogradov, Vinokurov, Ozhegov, Shcherva. The norms were formed as a result of the selection of language means in the process of communication and become correct and obligatory. The norm is cultivated in print media, in the media, in the process of school and vocational training.
Codification of the norm - fixing it in dictionaries, grammars, teaching aids. The norm is relatively stable and systemic, since it includes the rules for choosing elements of all levels of the language system. It is mobile and changeable, it can change over time under the influence of spoken language.
The norms of the modern Russian language are enshrined in publications Russian Academy sciences: various grammars and dictionaries.
The terms of normalization and codification are different. Normalization is the process of formation, approval of the norm, its description and ordering by the linguist. Normalization activity finds its expression in the codification of the literary norm - its recognition and description in the form of rules.
The norms of the language are stable and systemic, but at the same time stable. Norms exist at different levels of the language - phonetic, lexical, grammatical. According to the degree of obligation, there are imperative (strictly mandatory norms) and dispositive (assuming variants of pronunciation of grammatical and syntactic units). Objective fluctuations in the literary norm are associated with the development of the language, when variants are transitional steps from the outdated to the new. The norm is one of the most important conditions for stability, unity and originality of the national language. The norm is dynamic, because it is the result of human activity, enshrined in tradition. Fluctuations in the norm are the result of the interaction of functional styles. Such phenomena of social life as anti-normalization and purism are closely related to the development of norms.
Anti-normalization is the denial of the scientific normalization and codification of the language, based on the assertion of the spontaneity of the development of the language.
Purism is the rejection of innovations or their outright prohibition. Purism plays the role of a regulator that protects against borrowing, excessive innovation
7. Norms of orthoepy. Pronunciation of vowels and consonants .
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy. Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation importance. Orthoepic errors interfere with perceiving the content of speech, and pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates and speeds up the process of communication.
The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation. In Russian speech, voiced consonants are obligatory stunned at the end of a word. We pronounce bread[p] - bread, sa[t] - garden. The consonant g at the end of a word always turns into a deaf sound paired with it k. An exception is the word god.
In a combination of voiced and deaf consonants, the first of them is likened to the second. If the first of them is voiced, and the second is deaf, the first sound is deafened: lo [sh] ka - a spoon, pro [n] ka - a cork. If the first is deaf, and the second is voiced, the first sound is voiced: [h] doba - muffin, [h] ruin - ruin.
Before the consonants [l], [m], [n], [r], which do not have paired deaf, and before the assimilation does not occur and the words are pronounced as they are written: light [tl] o, [shw] ryat.
The combinations of szh and zzh are pronounced as a double hard [zh]: ra[zh]at - unclench, [zh] life - with life, fry - [zh] to fry.
The combination sch is pronounced as a long soft sound [sh '], just like the sound transmitted in writing by the letter u: [sh '] astier - happiness, [sh '] no - account.
The combination zch is pronounced as a long soft sound [sh ']: prik [sh '] ik - clerk, obra [sh '] ik - sample.
The combinations of tch and dch are pronounced as a long sound [h ']: report [h '] ik - speaker, le [h '] ik - pilot.
The combinations of ts and dts are pronounced as a long sound q: two [ts]at - twenty, gold [ts] e - gold.
In combinations of stn, zdn, stl, consonant sounds [t] and [d] drop out: prettier [sn] y, po [kn] o, che [sn], uch [sl] ive.
The combination ch is usually pronounced like this [ch] (al[ch] th, careless [ch] th). The pronunciation [shn] instead of [ch] is required in female patronymics on -ichna: Ilini[shn]a, Nikiti[shn]a. Some words are pronounced in two ways: bulo [shn] aya and bulo [ch] aya, Molo[shn] y and young [ch] y. In some cases, different pronunciation serves to semantic differentiation of words: heart [ch] beat - heart [shn] friend.
8. Norms of stress. Features of Russian stress .
Incorrect stress in words reduces the culture of oral speech. Errors in stress can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. Features and functions of stress are studied by the department of linguistics accentology. Stress in Russian, unlike other languages, is free, that is, it can fall on any syllable. In addition, the stress can be mobile (if in different forms of the word it falls on the same part) and fixed (if the stress changes place in different forms the same word).
In some words, difficulties in stress exist due to the fact that many do not know their belonging to a part of speech. For example, the adjective developed. This word is used in the sense of "having reached a high degree of development." But in Russian there is a participle developed, or developed, formed from the verb to develop. In this case, the stress depends on whether it is an adjective or a participle.
In the Russian alphabet there is a letter ё, which is considered optional, optional. The printing of the letter e instead of e in literature and official papers led to the fact that in many words they began to pronounce on the spot about e: not bile - [zho] lch, but bile - [zhe] lch, not an obstetrician - aku [shor], but obstetrician - aku [Sher]. In some words, the emphasis was shifted: bewitched, underestimated instead of the correct bewitched, underestimated.
9. Pronunciation of loanwords .
Borrowed words usually obey the orthoepic norms of the modern Russian language and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features.
In an unstressed position, the sound [o] is preserved in words such as m[o] turf, m[o] del, [o] asis. But most borrowed vocabulary obeys general rules pronunciations [o] and [a] in unstressed syllables: b[a] cal, k[a] styum, r[a] yal.
In most borrowed words, before [e], the consonants are softened: ka [t ']et, pa [t '] efon, [s '] eriya, ga [z '] eta. But in a number of words of foreign origin, the hardness of consonants before [e] is preserved: sh[te]psel, s[te]nd, e[ne]rgia. More often, hardness before [e] is retained by dental consonants: [t], [d], [s], [s], [n], [p].
10. Functional-semantic types of speech:
description, narration, reasoning. Description can be used in any style of speech, but in scientific characterization the subject should be extremely complete, and in the artistic emphasis is placed only on the brightest details. Therefore, linguistic means in the scientific and artistic style are more diverse than in the scientific one: there are not only adjectives and nouns, but also verbs, adverbs, comparisons, various figurative uses of words are very common.
Examples of descriptions in scientific and artistic style. 1. Apple tree - ranet purple - frost-resistant variety. The fruits are rounded, 2.5-3 cm in diameter. Fruit weight 17-23 g. Medium juiciness, with a characteristic sweet, slightly astringent taste. 2. Linden apples were large and transparent yellow. If you look through an apple in the sun, it shone through like a glass of fresh linden honey. There were grains in the middle. You used to shake a ripe apple near your ear, you could hear the seeds rattling.
Narration- this is a story, a message about an event in its temporal sequence. The peculiarity of the narrative is that it talks about actions following one after another. For all narrative texts, the beginning of the event (outset), the development of the event, the end of the event (denouement) are common. The story can be told in a third person. This is the author's story. It can also come from the first person: the narrator is named or indicated by the personal pronoun I. Such texts often use verbs in the past tense of the perfect form. But, in order to give the text expressiveness, others are used simultaneously with them: the verb in the form of the past tense of the imperfect form makes it possible to single out one of the actions, denoting its duration; present tense verbs make it possible to present actions as if taking place before the eyes of the reader or listener; forms of the future tense with a particle like (how to jump), as well as forms like clap, jump help to convey the swiftness, surprise of this or that action. Narration as a type of speech is very common in such genres as memoirs, letters.
Narrative example: I began to stroke Yashkin's paw and I think: just like a baby's. And tickled his hand. And the baby somehow pulls his paw - and me on the cheek. I did not even have time to blink, but he slapped me in the face and jumped under the table. Sat down and grins.
reasoning- this is a verbal presentation, explanation, confirmation of any thought. The composition of the reasoning is as follows: the first part is a thesis, that is, a thought that must be logically proved, substantiated or refuted; the second part is the rationale for the expressed thought, evidence, arguments, supported by examples; the third part is the conclusion, the conclusion. The thesis must be clearly provable, clearly articulated, the arguments are convincing and in sufficient quantity to confirm the thesis put forward. Between the thesis and arguments (as well as between individual arguments) should
be a logical and grammatical connection. For a grammatical connection between the thesis and arguments, introductory words are often used: firstly, secondly, finally, so, therefore, in this way. In the reasoning text, sentences with conjunctions are widely used, however, although, despite the fact that, since.
An example of reasoning: The development of the meanings of a word usually goes from the particular (concrete) to the general (abstract). Let's think about the literal meaning of such, for example, words as education, disgust, previous. Education literally means "feeding", disgust - "turning away" (from an unpleasant person or object), the previous one - "going ahead".
The words-terms denoting abstract mathematical concepts: “segment”, “tangent”, “point”, originated from very specific action verbs: cut, touch, stick (poke).
In all these cases, the original concrete meaning acquires a more abstract meaning in the language.
11. Functional styles of the modern Russian language, their interaction .
Functional styles are created as a result of the selection of language tools depending on the goals and objectives that are set and solved in the process of communication.
Usually, the following functional styles are distinguished: 1) scientific, 2) official business, 3) journalistic, 4) colloquial and everyday.
The attachment of words to a certain style is explained by the fact that words that have the same meaning can differ in emotional and stylistic coloring, therefore they are used in different styles (lack - deficit, liar - liar, squander - squander, cry - complain). In everyday everyday dialogue, characteristic of oral speech, mostly colloquial vocabulary is used. It does not violate the norms of literary speech, but its use is unacceptable in official communication.
The scientific style is characterized by scientific terminology: pedagogy, society, state, theory, process, structure. Words are used in a direct, nominative sense, there is no emotionality. Sentences are narrative in nature, mostly in direct word order.
A feature of the official business style is a concise, compact presentation, economical use of language tools. Characteristic set expressions are used (with gratitude we confirm; we inform that; in case of appearance, etc.). this style is characterized by the "dryness" of presentation, the lack of expressive means, the use of words in their direct meaning.
The characteristic features of the journalistic style are the relevance of the content, the sharpness and brightness of the presentation, the author's passion. The purpose of the text is to influence the mind and feelings of the reader, listener. A variety of vocabulary is used: terms of literature and art, general literary words, means of speech expressiveness. The text is dominated by detailed stylistic constructions, interrogative and exclamatory sentences are used.
The everyday colloquial style is characterized by the use various types sentences, free word order, limiting short sentences, words with evaluative suffixes (week, darling), figurative means of the language.
12. Scientific style, its features, scope of implementation .
Scientific style is a speech system specially adapted for optimal communication of people in the scientific field of activity.
The scientific style has a number of common features that are characteristic of all sciences, which makes it possible to talk about the specifics of the style as a whole. But texts on physics, chemistry, mathematics cannot but differ from texts on history, philosophy, cultural studies. In accordance with this, the scientific style has sub-styles: popular scientific, scientific and business, scientific and technical, scientific and journalistic, production and technical, educational and scientific.
The scientific style is characterized by a logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of links between parts of statements, the desire of authors for accuracy, conciseness, unambiguity of expression while maintaining saturation of content. The scientific style is characterized by a number of general conditions of functioning and linguistic features: 1) preliminary consideration of statements, 2) monologue character, 3) strict selection of language means, 4) gravitation towards normalized speech.
The original form of the existence of scientific speech is written. Written form fixes information for a long time, and science requires just that.
In writing, it is much easier to operate with complex structures that are used in scientific thinking. The written form is more convenient in detecting the slightest inaccuracies, which in scientific communication can lead to the most serious distortions of the truth. The written form makes it possible to refer to information repeatedly. The oral form also has advantages (simultaneity of mass communication, efficiency of orientation to a specific type of addressee, etc.), but it is temporary, while the written one is permanent. The oral form in scientific communication is secondary - a scientific work is first written and then reproduced.
Scientific speech is fundamentally without subtext, subtext contradicts its essence. It is dominated by a monologue. Even scientific dialogue is a series of alternating monologues. A scientific monologue takes the form of a work with a thoughtful selection of content, clarity of construction, optimal speech design.
Scientific speech operates with concepts of a complex nature. A concept is a form in which the essential features of an object are thought. In the terminology of each science, several layers can be distinguished: 1) general categorical concepts that reflect the most general objects of reality: objects, signs, connections (system, function, element). These concepts constitute the general conceptual fund of science; 2) concepts common to a number of related sciences that have common objects of study (abscissa, protein, vacuum, vector). Such concepts serve as a link between the sciences of the same profile (humanitarian, natural, technical, etc.) and they can be defined as profile-special. 3) highly specialized concepts that are characteristic of one science and reflect the specificity of the research aspect (in biology - biogenic, bothria, etc.).
Along with the selection of types according to the degree of generality, it is also advisable to distinguish types according to the degree of volume, the breadth of the concept. The broadest concepts of this science, in which the most general and essential features and properties are displayed, are called categories. Categories constitute the conceptual core of science. From them comes a network of concepts of ever narrower scope. In general, they constitute the system of special terminology of this science.
13. Formal business style. Genre diversity, scope .
Officially - business style serves the scope of administrative and legal activities. It satisfies the requirements of society in documenting various acts of state, social, political, economic life, business relations between the state and organizations, as well as between members of society in the official sphere of their communication.
Official - business style is implemented in texts of various genres: charter, law, order, complaint, prescription, statement. The genres of this style perform informational, prescriptive and ascertaining functions in various fields of activity. In this regard, the main form of implementation is written.
The common style features of officially ice speech are:
· Accuracy of presentation, not allowing the possibility of interpretation, detail of presentation;
stereotyping, standard presentation;
· Must, prescriptive nature of the presentation.
In addition, such features of the official business style are noted as: formality, strictness of expression of thought, objectivity and logic inherent in scientific speech.
The system of official business style is made up of 3 types of language tools:
A) Having an appropriate functional and stylistic coloring (plaintiff, defendant, protocol, identity card, job description.
B) Neutral, interstyle, as well as general book language means.
C) Language means that are neutral in stylistic coloring, but have become a sign of official business style (raise a question, express disagreement).
Many verbs are used in the infinitive form, which is associated with the prescriptive function of style. When naming a person, nouns are more often used, rather than pronouns, the designation of a person on the basis of an action (applicant, defendant, tenant). Nouns denoting positions and titles are used in the masculine form, even when they refer to females (defendant Proshina). The use of verbal nouns and participles is typical: the arrival of transport, servicing the population, replenishing the budget.
In official business style texts, antonyms are often used, synonyms are rarely used. Typical are compound words formed from two or more stems: tenant, employer, the above. Accuracy, unambiguity and standardization of the means used are the main features of official business speech.
14. Journalistic style, its features, genres, scope of implementation.
The journalistic style of speech is a functional variety of the literary language and is widely used in various areas of public life: newspapers, magazines, on television, in public political speeches, in the activities of parties and public associations.
The breadth of topics affects the linguistic features of this style: it becomes necessary to include special vocabulary that requires explanation. On the other hand, a number of topics are in the center of public attention, and the vocabulary related to these topics acquires a journalistic coloring. Among such topics, politics, economics, education, healthcare, criminalistics, and military topics should be singled out.
Vocabulary, characteristic of the journalistic style, can be used in other styles: in official business, scientific. But in a journalistic style, it acquires a special function - to create a picture of events and convey to the addressee the journalist's impressions of these events.
The journalistic style is characterized by the use of evaluative vocabulary, which has a strong emotional connotation (an energetic start, a firm position, a severe crisis).
Journalistic style performs the function of influence and message. The interaction of these functions determines the use of words in journalism. The message function, by the nature of the use of language means, brings the text closer to scientifically - business style with features of factuality. The text, which performs the function of influence, has an openly evaluative character, aimed at campaigning influence in certain parameters, approaching fiction.
In addition to the informational and influencing functions, the texts of the journalistic style also perform other functions inherent in the language: communicative, aesthetic, expressive.
15. Book and colloquial speech. Their features .
The attachment of words to a certain style is explained by the fact that words that have the same meaning can differ in emotional and stylistic coloring, therefore they are used in different styles (lack - deficit, liar - liar, squander - squander, cry - complain). In everyday everyday dialogue, characteristic of oral speech, mostly colloquial vocabulary is used. It does not violate the norms of literary speech, but its use is unacceptable in official communication (the words blotter, dryer are acceptable in colloquial speech, but are inappropriate in official communication).
Colloquial words are opposed to book vocabulary, which includes words of scientific, technical, journalistic and official business styles. Lexical meaning book words, their grammatical arrangement and pronunciation are subject to the norms of the literary language, deviation from which is unacceptable.
Concreteness of meaning is characteristic of colloquial vocabulary, book vocabulary is predominantly abstract. The terms book and colloquial vocabulary are conditional, book words typical of written speech can also be used orally, and colloquial words can be used in writing.
In the Russian language there is a large group of words used in all styles and characteristic of both oral and written speech. They are called stylistically neutral.
16. Conversational style
Speaking is the oral form of the existence of a language. Distinctive features oral speech can be entirely attributed to the colloquial style. However, the concept of "colloquial speech" is broader than the concept of "conversational style". They cannot be mixed. Although the conversational style is mainly realized in the oral form of communication, some genres of other styles are also carried out in oral speech, for example: a report, lecture, report, etc. Conversational speech functions only in the private sphere of communication, in everyday, friendly, family and etc. In the field of mass communication, colloquial speech is not applicable. However, this does not mean that the colloquial style is limited to everyday topics. Colloquial speech can also touch on other topics: for example, a conversation in the family circle or a conversation of people in informal relationships about art, science, politics, sports, etc., a conversation of friends at work related to the profession of speakers, conversations in public institutions, such as clinics, schools, etc.
In the sphere of everyday communication, there is colloquial style. The main features of everyday conversational style:
1. Casual and informal nature of communication;
2. Reliance on an extralinguistic situation, i.e. the immediate environment of speech in which communication takes place. For example: Woman (before leaving home): What am I to wear?(about the coat) This is it, isn't it? Or that?(about the jacket) Will I freeze?
Listening to these statements, and not knowing the specific situation, it is impossible to guess what is at stake. Thus, in colloquial speech, the extralinguistic situation becomes integral part communication.
1) Lexical variety: and common book vocabulary, and terms, and foreign borrowings, and words of high stylistic coloring, and even some facts of vernacular, dialects and jargons. This is explained, firstly, by the thematic diversity of colloquial speech, which is not limited to everyday topics, everyday remarks, and secondly, by the implementation of colloquial speech in two keys - serious and comic, and in the latter case, it is possible to use various elements.
2) Spoken language is characteristic emotionally expressive assessments subjective, since the speaker acts as a private person and expresses his personal opinion and attitude. Very often this or that situation is evaluated hyperbolically: "Wow price! Go crazy!", "Flowers in the garden - the sea!", "I want to drink! I'll die!" Typical use of words in a figurative sense, for example: "You've got porridge in your head!" Colloquial vocabulary is heterogeneous:
Vernacular, which is on the verge of literary use, is not rude in its essence, somewhat familiar; for example: potatoes instead of potato, savvy instead of cleverness, become instead of happen;
Non-literary vernacular, rude, for example: drive up instead of achieve, plop down instead of fell;
3. Colloquial vocabulary includes:
Colloquial professionalisms, slang words ( plaisir- pleasure, fun; plein air- nature),
Argotisms ( split- betray; lettuce, lettuce- young, inexperienced)
Slang vocabulary can be associated with the age commonality of generations (for example, in the language of youth: spurs(crib), pair(two).
All these categories of words have a narrow scope of distribution; in the expressive sense, they are characterized by extreme reduction.
4. Syntactic constructions also have their own characteristics. For colloquial speech, constructions with particles, interjections, constructions of a phraseological nature are typical: "They tell you, they say - and it's all to no avail!", "But where are you? There's dirt!" and so on.
Typical for colloquial speech is silence, incompleteness of statements, an abundance of ellipses and incomplete sentences, numerous repetitions, insert structures, the predominance of composing sentences over subordinating ones, the dialogic nature of the utterance.
Conversational style:
Frozen constructions that are not amenable to distinct articulation ( what is true is true; what is bad is bad);
structures with uncontrolled forms ( order with homework);
- "dismemberment" and connecting structures ( I respect her - for honesty and adherence to principles; I'll go home. To the granddaughter);
Sentences with a "shifted" construction ( I don't know where to get water anyway.) and etc.
Language arose naturally and is a system that is necessary both for an individual (individual) and society (collective). As a result, language is inherently multifunctional.
LANGUAGE is a socially determined system of verbal signs that serve as a means of designating a variety of information and communication between people, it is the most important tool of human activity. In human activity, language performs several important functions. The main ones are: communicative; cognitive (cognitive); accumulative; emotional; magical and poetic.
The communicative function of language
The communicative function of language is related to the fact that language is primarily a means of communication between people. It allows one individual - the speaker - to express his thoughts, and the other - the perceiver - to understand them, that is, to somehow react, take note, change his behavior or his mental attitudes accordingly. The act of communication would not be possible without language.
Communication means communication, exchange of information. In other words, language arose and exists primarily so that people can communicate.
The communicative function of the language is carried out due to the fact that the language itself is a system of signs: it is simply impossible to communicate in another way. And the signs, in turn, are designed to transmit information from person to person.
literary language antithesis rhetorical
Message and influence, and communication are the realization of the communicative function of language.
Cognitive or cognitive function of language
Cognitive or cognitive function of the language (from the Latin cognition - knowledge, cognition) is connected with the fact that the human consciousness is realized or fixed in the signs of the language. Language is a tool of consciousness, reflects the results of human mental activity.
Scientists have not yet come to an unambiguous conclusion about what is primary - language or thinking. Perhaps the question itself is wrong. After all, words not only express our thoughts, but the thoughts themselves exist in the form of words, verbal formulations, even before their oral pronunciation. At least, no one has yet been able to fix the pre-verbal, pre-linguistic form of consciousness.
Any images and concepts of our consciousness are realized by ourselves and those around us only when they are clothed in a linguistic form. Hence the idea of the inseparable connection between thinking and language.
The connection between language and thought has been established even with the help of physiometric evidence. The subject was asked to think of some difficult task, and while he was thinking, special sensors took data from the speech apparatus of a silent person (from the larynx, tongue) and detected the nervous activity of the speech apparatus. That is, the mental work of the subjects "out of habit" was reinforced by the activity of the speech apparatus.
Curious evidence is provided by observations of the mental activity of polyglots - people who can speak well in many languages. They admit that in each case they "think" in one language or another. An illustrative example is Stirlitz, a scout from a famous movie - after many years of work in Germany, he caught himself "thinking in German."
The cognitive function of language not only allows you to record the results of mental activity and use them, for example, in communication. It also helps to understand the world. A person's thinking develops in the categories of language: realizing new concepts, things and phenomena for himself, a person names them.
· great mathematician Leonhard Euler wrote: “People need language so that they can follow their thoughts and develop them, as well as communicate with each other.”
Indeed, each new generation of a particular ethnic group, mastering the language, is attached to the knowledge of the surrounding reality, generally accepted norms of behavior, values rejected or accepted by the people.
Differ three main functions of the language, highlighted by L. Euler, are:
Thought tracking (support function);
Formation of inferences ( boolean function);
Means of communication (communication function).
thanks to these functions, the sign system turns into a language system. Once again, we will clarify that a language is not just a set of words, it is a structure built according to certain rules.
· The support function of language was first systematically studied by Gottlob Frege. He concluded that " When we reproduce a sign, we thereby create a certain support for our thought, a certain center around which various representations arise. Of these representations, we choose one and fix it again with the help of a sign.. Thus, the text is a sequence of such steps. Any text is a sequence of mental associations.
How is text formed in the mind? The formation of the text can be represented as a sequence of such mental acts:
Definition. The sign (symbolic) system used for such an organization of the structure of mental images that represents information is called a symbolic or sign language.
Language examples
1. Natural languages (languages used for human communication). A system of discrete sound signs "a", "b", "c", ..., which is a means of communication between people. Including sign language for the deaf and dumb.
2. Sign language, facial expressions.
3. The system of sequences of two characters "." and "-" (short and long signals) represents Morse code language. The unit of time is the duration of one point. The length of a dash is three dots. A pause between elements of the same character is one dot, between characters in a word is 3 dots, between words is 7 dots. Letter codes (actually "alphabet") were added by Morse's colleague, Alfred Weil - a fact that Morse subsequently denied in every possible way.
4. Symbolic languages
5. Including a system of signs representing musical sounds - notes.
6. Including programming languages, as well as any machine languages.
7. The language of painting
LANGUAGE MODELS
Each subject (literature, mathematics, music, etc.) has its own language. Moreover, each language can be represented in different ways. These different ways are called models, or implementations of the language.
Definition.Model is a way of representing objects and setting relationships between them. language model sets the way of forming words and texts from mental images.
It has already been said above that each language has its own representation of words and its own way of forming texts. In fact, even for different models of the same language, there is its own representation of words and its own way of forming texts.
Examples.
· Russian, English, Chinese - 3 different natural language models;
Sign language for the deaf and dumb is another model of natural language.
· In geometry, geometric and coordinate models of the mathematical language are used to represent flat and spatial figures;
Please note that languages can be interchangeable.
For example, the thought that we can express in Russian, we can express in English.
But the sign language for the deaf and dumb is somewhat poorer. It does not convey all information. Although there are about 3 thousand words and concepts in the sign language, which is used today by the hearing impaired. Names, proper names are "typed" using the finger alphabet. This language is constantly updated with new words-gestures.
Each of these models appeared as an implementation of the process of thinking in the form of text. Therefore, the text can be considered the main product of intellectual activity. Therefore, the study of the intellectual level of a person or text, the study of intellectual functions is the study of language products.
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