Collection of ideal essays on social studies. Reign of Alexander III
1881-1894
This period is associated with the reign of Alexander 3, known as the Tsar-Peacemaker, since during his reign Russia did not participate in any war. His political views were deeply conservative.
The tsar's inner circle included: chief prosecutor of the Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev, Minister of Internal Affairs D.A. Tolstoy and publicist M.N. Katkov. Shocked by the murder of his father, Emperor Alexander 2, who granted freedom to the peasants in 1861, in 1881 Alexander 3 rejected the proposals of M.T. Loris-Melikov on the so-called Constitution.
In April 1881, the manifesto "On the Inviolability of Autocracy" was published. Significant changes have taken place in the system of local self-government. In 1889 the rural peasant administration was subordinated to zemstvo chiefs. This measure meant strengthening the administrative vertical of power in the countryside, limiting peasant self-government and world courts. In 1890, the new "Regulations on provincial districts" strengthened the position of the nobility. The city regulation of 1892 strengthened the role of the nobility and the bourgeoisie in city dumas.
Also, Alexander 3 did not leave the field of education and the press unchanged. The famous circular "On the Cook's Children" of 1887 did not allow children of lackeys, laundresses, etc. to be admitted to the gymnasium. The university charter of 1884, which abolished the autonomy of the universities, led to numerous dissatisfaction among students and teachers. Unrest was recorded at Kazan University. The Provisional Press Regulations of 1882 ended liberal censorship policies.
The historian Solovyov noted that censorship under Alexander 3 was even tougher than under Nicholas 1. These reforms of Alexander 3 were called Counter-reforms in history.
A significant role in protecting the rights of workers was played by the Minister of Finance N. Kh. Bunge, a Russian statesman of the 19th century, a scientist and economist,
Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Minister of Finance of the Russian Empire (1882-1886. Under Bunge, work was carried out on the publication of factory (labor) legislation. In 1884, a law came into force prohibiting the work of minors in factories and regulating the duration of work of children and adolescents from 12 to 15 years, which was limited to eight hours (this led to a significant reduction in the number of young workers, the relationship between the employer and the employee was also regulated by law (1886) the working day was reduced (1897)
During the reign of Alexander, Russian industry was widely developed, thanks to the policy of protectionism (the economic policy of the state aimed at protecting and supporting domestic producers). This period was called the "Golden Age" of Russian industry. Under him, the industrial revolution was completed, the first monopolies appeared, and the Great Siberian Route was built.
Pre-revolutionary historians G. P. Annenkov, K. N. Korolkov, V. V. Nazarovsky - representatives of the official noble historiography - evaluated
the reign of Alexander III from a subjective - idealistic, apologetic positions. S. F. Platonov main goal He saw the policy of Alexander III in strengthening the authority of the supreme power and state order, strengthening the supervision and influence of the government, in connection with which the laws and institutions created in the era of the Great Reforms were “revised and improved”.
The time proposed for analysis was peaceful for Russia, accompanied by an economic upsurge. Financial stabilization and rapid industrial growth were achieved. downgrade , legalization of the obligation to buy out peasant allotments, the establishment for issuing loans to peasants for the purchase of land (1881-1884) aimed to smooth out the unfavorable sides for the peasants . Significant changes occurred in the field of taxation. Has been cancelled , giving the state annually 42.5 million . The firm rule of the emperor increased the well-being of the Russian people. At the same time, the positions of the conservatives strengthened, the role of the nobles in local government increased, and an attempt to maintain a constitution was suppressed.
Grade:
K 1 More than two events are named correctly - 2 points
K 2 Five historical figures are named, the role of two is shown - 2 points
By 3, two causal relationships are identified - 2 points
K 4 Evaluation of the period given by historians -1 point
K 5 Terms are used correctly -1 point
K 6 No actual errors -2 points
K 7 The work is presented in the form of an essay -1 point
Total 11 points
Russian history. XIX century. Grade 8 Lyashenko Leonid Mikhailovich
Chapter Nine RUSSIA DURING THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER III. 1881 - 1894
From the book History of Russia [ Tutorial] author Team of authors7.4. Protective autocracy of Alexander III (1881-1894) Crisis of power At the turn of the 70-80s. as a result of the contradictions of the post-reform development of Russia, a crisis situation arose in the country. A direct consequence of the reform of 1861 was a sharp deterioration in the economic situation
From the book History of Public Administration in Russia author Shchepetev Vasily Ivanovich2. Public administration Russia during the reign of Alexander III The principle of autocracy, remaining unshakable, was implemented under each tsar in different ways: sometimes cruelly and abruptly, sometimes mitigated by concessions and “indulgences”. And in the March days of 1881, Russian society greedily
From the book Forgotten History of the Russian Revolution. From Alexander I to Vladimir Putin author Kalyuzhny Dmitry VitalievichAlexander III (1881-1894) Under Alexander II, Russia moved from a completely stable, unlimited autocracy to a no less stable constitutional regime, but with such a transition, a stage of instability is inevitable, and therefore this is a very dangerous path: transforming and losing
From the book History of Russia author Ivanushkin V V26. Russia during the reign of Alexander III the Peacemaker. "Counter-reforms" of the 1890s Having recovered from the murder of his father, Alexander III began to pursue his tough policy. From 1886 to 1894, counter-reform projects were being developed. Fearing overthrow began to pursue a policy
author Istomin Sergey Vitalievich From the book Domestic History (until 1917) author Dvornichenko Andrey Yurievich§6. Domestic politics Alexander III (1881-1894) The regicide on March 1, 1881, however, did not lead to the revolution that the people of Narodnaya Volya so expected. But it dramatically changed the balance of power at the top. The positions of M. T. Loris-Melikov, who failed to save the emperor, as well as in general
From the book Russian military history in entertaining and instructive examples. 1700 -1917 author Kovalevsky Nikolay FedorovichTHE REIGN OF ALEXANDER III 1881-1894 After Alexander II was killed by revolutionaries in 1881, his son Alexander III became king, suspending all military and civil reforms. General Milyutin, who resigned from the post of Minister of War, left for the Crimea, to his estate. Not
From the book Russian Chronograph. From Rurik to Nicholas II. 809–1894 author Konyaev Nikolai MikhailovichThe Russian Tsar (1881-1894.) Alexander III - in this his life repeats the story of Peter the Great - should not have inherited the throne. He was the second son of Emperor Alexander II ... The elder brother died in April 1865, and Alexander became the heir. They say that, dying, the brother said
From the book Jews in the Russian Army and Unter Trumpeldor [historical miniature] author Akunov Wolfgang ViktorovichThe reigns of Alexander III (1881-1894) and Nicholas II (1894-1917) April 10, 1882 By order of the Minister of War, a percentage rate is introduced for Jewish doctors and cadets of the Military Medical Academy serving in the army (there should be no more than 5%). 1891–1892 Eviction of retired people from Moscow
From the book History of the Russian Church (Synodal period) author Tsypin Vladislav§ 4. Russian Orthodox Church in 1881-1894 Alexander III ascended the throne in 1881 after the murder of his father by populists. An era of harsh reaction to the liberal reforms of the 1960s began, an era of suppression of radical free-thinking and a bloody struggle between the government and the revolutionary underground. AT
From the book Chronology Russian history the author Comte FrancisChapter 16. 1881-1894 Alexander III and the "counter-reforms" The assassination of Alexander II opens a period of violent reaction. Alexander III, who began his reign with a manifesto affirming autocratic power, surrounds himself with extremely conservative ministers and begins
From the book Domestic History. Crib author Barysheva Anna Dmitrievna43 RUSSIA DURING THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER III. COUNTERREFORMS IN THE 1890s From 1881 to 1894 Alexander Sh. ruled in Russia. He went down in history as a peacemaker tsar, as he was a staunch opponent of resolving international problems by military means. The new tsar was conservative,
From the book I know the world. History of Russian tsars author Istomin Sergey VitalievichEmperor Alexander III - Peacemaker Years of life 1845–1894 Years of reign - 1881–1894 Father - Alexander II Nikolaevich, Emperor of All Russia. Mother - Maximilian-Wilhelmina-August-Sophia-Maria Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, in Orthodoxy Maria Alexandrovna. Emperor
author Galanyuk P. P.Russia during the reign of Emperor Alexander III Part I When completing tasks with a choice of answers (A1-A20), circle the number of the correct answer in the examination paper. A1. Specify the years of the reign of Emperor Alexander III.1. 1880–18942. 1881–18943. 1881–18964.
From the book History. 8th grade. Thematic test tasks to prepare for the GIA author Galanyuk P. P.Russia during the reign of Emperor Alexander III
From the book Life and customs of tsarist Russia author Anishkin V. G.Actual
This statement of yours is a factual error. I'll take off the score according to the K-6 criterion. Since, in principle, the historical role of Delyanov in the implementation of the policy of counter-reforms is indicated correctly. However: "" ... It cannot be said that Ivan Delyanov himself was the initiator or ideological inspirer of such a policy ... His main strength was his unconditional loyalty and devotion to Dmitry Tolstoy and Konstantin Pobedonostsev, who essentially (through Delyanov) directed the activities of the ministry public education. ..."" Add to Wikipedia. V. Tvardovskaya's classic monograph on the ideology of the post-reform autocracy convincingly shows the role of Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov (chief editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti) in developing the ideological directions of counter-reforms. He was not a politician, but it was he who was "the main ideologist".
Fragment comment
You state the content of the educational counter-reform almost strictly according to Wikipedia (see cit.): "" ... Delyanov transferred parochial schools and junior schools of literacy to the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod, thus giving all primary education ecclesiastical character. In 1884, the new university statute also significantly limited the autonomy of universities and other higher education institutions. educational institutions introduced an appointment for professors and state examinations for students. Finally, with the active participation of Delyanov, in 1887 the infamous “circular about the cook’s children” was issued, which seriously made it difficult for people of the lower classes to enter gymnasiums and higher educational institutions. In this circular, it was directly ordered not to admit "children of coachmen, laundresses, small shopkeepers" to the gymnasium. In 1886, Delyanov closed the Higher Women's Courses, which were reopened three years later, but with a new, significantly modified program. Also, under Delyanov, a strict percentage rate was introduced for the admission of Jews to higher educational institutions ... "". This is valid as it contains no errors. Except that the document "On the Cook's Children" was a circular of the MNP, and not a charter or decree. Be specific about the nature of the source.
Actual
The actual beginning of the Jewish Pale of Settlement was laid by the decree of Empress Catherine II of December 23, 1791 ... The final legal registration of the Pale of Settlement was announced by the “Regulations on the Organization of the Jews” of 1804. As you can see, the creation of the Pale of Settlement refers to the activities of Catherine II and Alexander I. The very term "Pale of Settlement" is used in relation to Jews and Gypsies, therefore it is incorrect to use it in the context of "" nat. minorities". There were up to and more of those in the Russian Empire!
Fragment comment
Your statement somewhat distorts the essence of events. What kind of real-life religious tolerance are we talking about? To what denominations? Maybe about a change legal status Old Believers in 1883? Unclear. What kind of reform of church administration are we talking about, if we mean the 1860s? There were changes in the dioceses, there was an affirmation of the openness of the clergy... What, in your opinion, was K. P. Pobedonostsev opposed? There is nowhere else to reduce for actual errors. Historical role in general characteristics count. But be careful with the wording!
Fragment comment
You cunningly exited the problem according to the K-3 criterion. In one statement "caught" two causal relationships. Populist terror = curtailment of reforms and counter-reforms + ""temporary decline of the revolutionary workers' movement"". But I can't give two points here. Because the second statement cannot be considered an exact fact! Before developing a course of counter-reforms, what kind of "revolutionary workers' movement" are we talking about? It is rather a fact of the 1890s. It is unlikely that the labor unions of the 1870s fall under this definition ...
Show full text
1881-1894 - the years of the reign of Alexander III. This emperor carried out many transformations in different areas public life. Let's name and analyze some of them.
The reign of Alexander III entered the history of Russia under the name of “counter-reforms”, since, firstly, these were measures to revise the liberal reforms of the 60s, and secondly, they were extremely conservative and reactionary in nature (“father reformed too much” - said the emperor about the activities of his father, Alexander II).
One of the directions of the counter-reforms concerned the field of printing and education. There was a tightening of censorship, a number of liberal newspapers and magazines were closed, university autonomy was abolished in 1884, and in 1887 a charter on the "Cook's Children" was adopted, which forbade the children of small shopkeepers, cooks (i.e., low social status) to study in gymnasiums. Minister of Education Delyanov contributed to the implementation of just such a policy. His role is that it was he who was the main ideologist of counter-reforms in education.: he created a decree on the "Kukharkin's children", gave education a church character, introduced a percentage rate for the education of Jews in universities. It was he who insisted on reducing the availability of education for the lower strata of the population, as well as for women (the Higher Women's Courses were closed, etc.), becoming one of the conductors of the state's conservative course in the field of press and education.
Another direction of counter-reforms in this period is national and confessional policy. Settlement lines were created for nat. minorities (particularly for Jews), an active policy of Russification was carried out (for example, education in Russian in Polish universities), the persecution of the Old Believers resumed, Buddhists were forbidden to build places of worship and hold holy
Criteria
- 2 of 2 K1 Indication of events (phenomena, processes)
- 2 of 2 K2 Historical personalities and their role in the indicated events (phenomena, processes) of a given period of history
- 1 of 2 K3 Causal relationships
- 1 of 1 K4 Assessment of the impact of events (phenomena, processes) of a given period on the further history of Russia
- 1 of 1 K5 Use of historical terminology
- 0 of 2 K6 Presence of factual errors
- 1 of 1 K7 Presentation Form
- TOTAL: 8 out of 11
Vera Alexandrovna Kriushina
Task 25 of the exam in history: three topics for writing a historical essay to choose from.
Each of the topics is presented in the form of a historical period.
The proposed periods always correspond to different historical eras.
Historical essay.
An example of a historical essay period 1881-1894
Historical essay, writing order.
Introductory part.
The general situation in the state at the beginning of the period, tasks, main events and phenomena,
occurring during this time.
Main part.
Specify the historical process, for a more detailed consideration.
- Uncover the causes and factors that influenced the development historical process.
- Describe the participation of a historical figure in this process.
- Conclusion about the nature and consequences of the historical process for the state, the life of society,
its historical significance.
Conclusion.
Using the facts, draw a conclusion about this period in the history of the state.
What were the objectives and consequences of the events that took place.
Give the opinions and assessments of historians of this period, your own assessment,
confirmed by historical facts.
An example of a historical essay period 1881-1894
Historical essay period 1881-1894
1881-1894 - the reign of Emperor Alexander III in Russia.
The domestic policy of Alexander III was aimed at revising the results of the transformations of 1860-1870. and was called "counter-reforms".
In 1881, the regulation "On enhanced and emergency protection" was introduced.
In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced.
In the new regulation on the zemstvos of 1890, the representation of the nobility was strengthened.
The city regulation of 1892 deprived the poor of the city of voting rights, limited the number of vowels, and increased the dependence of city self-government on the administration.
In the field of the court, the law of 1885 shook the irremovability of judges, the law of 1887 limited judicial publicity, the law of 1889 narrowed the range of actions of the jury and liquidated the magistrates' courts.
In the field of education, university self-government was liquidated in 1884;
in 1887, a circular from the Minister of Education I.D. Delyanova limited education to children from the lower strata of society.
However, in the 1880s A number of measures were taken to alleviate the situation of the people:
reduction of redemption payments, the abolition of the poll tax.
Restriction of factory work of young children and night work of adolescents and women was aimed at protecting labor.
Main directions foreign policy Alexander III were as follows:
strengthening influence in the Balkans;
search for reliable allies;
maintaining peaceful relations with all countries;
establishment of borders in the south of Central Asia;
consolidation of Russia in new territories Far East.
In 1885-1886. Alexander III did not interfere in the conflict between Bulgaria and Serbia and Turkey, as a result of which Russia's positions in the Balkans were weakened.
In the late 1880s, the rapprochement between Russia and France began:
in 1887 the French government provided large loans to Russia,
and in 1891-1894. A Russian-French military alliance was formed.
During the reign of Alexander III, the territory of the Russian Empire increased due to the annexation of Turkmenistan.
In 1885, an agreement was signed on the creation of Russian-English military commissions to determine the final borders of Russia and Afghanistan.
In 1891, Russia began building a railway line to Vladivostok.
Its completion was supposed to dramatically increase Russia's forces in the Far East.
Historians evaluate the reign of Alexander III ambiguously.
One side,
Alexander III significantly narrowed the results of the reforms of Alexander II,
refused to introduce a constitution in Russia,
suppressed revolutionary unrest with harsh measures.
On the other hand,
under him, the situation of the peasants and workers was facilitated,
the territory of the country has increased.
During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage a single war.
For the maintenance of European peace, Alexander III received the nickname "Peacemaker".
Forgotten History of the Russian Revolution. From Alexander I to Vladimir Putin Kalyuzhny Dmitry Vitalievich
Alexander III (1881–1894)
Alexander III (1881–1894)
Under Alexander II, Russia moved from a completely stable, unlimited autocracy to a no less stable constitutional regime, but with such a transition, a stage of instability is inevitable, and therefore this is a very dangerous path: transforming and losing stability, the system becomes vulnerable. However, if the government has a clear idea of what it wants to achieve in the end and knows how to achieve what it has planned, this path can be taken calmly and prudently, moving from reform to reform, following the logic of their development and not stopping before measures that do not have a soul . The most unacceptable quality for a leader on this path is indecision.
Alexander II was an indecisive leader. He could not clearly understand what he wanted, for the sake of what good for Russia he started the reforms, and therefore, to a large extent, he himself was to blame for the drama that had unfolded. The country, as a result of his leadership, fell into instability; bombers came out of the clouds of this fog and killed the initiator of the changes. Fortunately, the imperious hand of Alexander III intercepted the reins of government.
He stopped the reforms to look around.
After the murder of his father, Alexander III gathered the Council of Ministers, which he presided over. It seemed to many that since the late emperor approved Loris-Melikov's report on the transition to democracy, then the discussion of his "Constitution" in the Council of Ministers was a mere formality. But the emperor warned that "the question should not be considered a foregone conclusion." Disputes began in which opinions were expressed both “for” and “against” the proposed document.
The scales fluctuated until the head procurator of the Synod, K. P. Pobedonostsev, took the floor. He declared that only "pure" autocracy, such as it developed under Peter I and Nicholas I, could resist the revolution. The inept reformers, by their concessions, semi-concessions and semi-reforms, can only shake the building of the autocratic state. After his speech, Alexander III offered to think more about the project.
Never returned to this project.
Alexander III was born in 1845. He was the second son of Alexander II, and he, like Nicholas I in his time, was not prepared for power; he received the usual military education for grand dukes. But in 1865 his older brother Nikolai died; he became the heir to the throne, and soon also married the bride of his late brother, a Danish princess, who in Orthodoxy took the name Maria Feodorovna.
The appearance of Alexander III was far from aristocratic. He wore a beard with a shovel, was unpretentious in everyday life, in everyday situations he walked in a simple shirt. He was slandered, as was Paul; he was not forgiven for either "reactionary" politics or appearance, no behavior - after all, he called his courtiers and ministers "brutes" or "scumbags." True, it's good enough for the job. His favorite pastime was fishing, requiring perseverance and responding to his unhurried temperament. “Europe can wait while the Russian tsar is fishing,” he once said and really went fishing.
Alexander III
In August 1881, he issued the "Regulations on Enhanced and Emergency Security". When an emergency regime was introduced in any locality, the authorities received emergency rights, including: expel undesirable persons, close educational institutions, refer cases to a military court instead of a civil one, and suspend periodicals. The "Regulations" noted its temporary nature, but it lasted until the fall of the autocracy, that is, more than a quarter of a century. Some areas have been under emergency administration for decades, although there was no particular need for this. The governors simply did not want to part with additional powers.
At that time, the peasant problem had the most complex character. The reform of 1861 has exhausted itself in the past twenty years; new measures were required that would make the peasant a full member of society and help him adapt to market relations. In short, the reform had to be completed in one way or another, putting an end to uncertainty and instability.
1881–1882 .- The first wave of anti-Jewish pogroms.
1881 , December. - Decree on the reduction of redemption payments and the mandatory transfer of all landlord peasants for redemption.
At the end of the previous reign, the fact of the depletion of payment forces and the general decline in the welfare of the peasant population was recognized by the government itself, but the issue of lowering redemption payments was not resolved. Only under Alexander III, when it was possible to carry out the most important improvements in the financial system, was at least something done.
In May 1881, the emperor called the former Kyiv professor N. Kh. Bunge to the post of Minister of Finance. He proposed a whole program of action, which included, in particular, balancing income with expenses through the observance of the most strict and reasonable economy and the improvement of the tax system through a more equitable distribution of taxes.
In the autumn of 1881, the Imperial order followed on the observance by all departments of strict thrift and on the steady implementation of the estimated rules. Overestimate appropriations have been halved, and still the lack of funds has not been remedied. The need to cover deficits, as well as the extraordinary costs of paying off temporary issues of credit notes and on the construction of railways resumed since 1881, forced to acquire funds through new loans, and as a result, it was not possible to balance the state budget.
However, that part of his program, which concerned the improvement of the tax system, N. Kh. Bunge carried out successfully; he always admitted it the most important goal its management. Redemption payments were lowered and the poll tax was gradually abolished. Taxes of 53 million rubles were removed from the peasants, with the involvement in the taxation of other, more wealthy classes of the population, until then exempted from direct taxation or insufficiently taxed. By introducing the necessary equalization into the tax system, these measures, according to Bunge, should pave the way for the introduction of income taxation over time.
1882 .- Abolition of the poll tax. Creation of the Peasant Land Bank, which issued loans to people freed from serfdom to buy land. Soon, from January 1, 1883, all peasants who did not conclude redemption deals with the landlords were transferred to compulsory redemption. The amount of redemption payments was lowered as early as 1881. However, the main result of the activities of the Peasants' Bank was the opportunity for the Russian nobility to profitably sell their lands through it.
1882 , May. - The ban on Jews to settle outside cities and towns, i.e., in the countryside. June. - Establishment of the Factory Inspectorate, the beginning of factory legislation. Introduction of an administrative link. July. - Opening of the first telephone exchange in St. Petersburg. August. – Temporary rules on the press, which tightened censorship restrictions.
The emperor established parochial schools; in the interests of improving the national economy created the Ministry of Agriculture. In 1882-1884, many printed publications were closed, and the autonomy of universities was again abolished. primary schools handed over to the church department - the Synod. During the thirty post-reform years, several hundred thousand students passed through public schools, zemstvo schools, gymnasiums and other educational institutions: if in the pre-reform decade literacy in Russia was approximately 5–6%, then in the second half of the 1890s it was 18–21%.
1883 , May 7. - Establishment of the white-blue-red flag of the Russian Empire.
1883 . – Emergence of the first Marxist organization, the Emancipation of Labor group.
In 1885, the Noble Bank was established. In this bank, landowners could receive a soft loan secured by estates; reloading was also allowed. Unpaid interest was often written off. With the help of these measures, the government actually subsidized the landlords. And from their side there were constant complaints that the men were “spoiled”, and the magistrates were not strict enough. Taking into account the wishes of the nobility, the government introduced in 1889 the "Regulations on zemstvo district chiefs." The world court in the village was abolished. Zemstvo chiefs (who, in fact, had nothing to do with the Zemstvo) concentrated all administrative and judicial power in their hands, and nobles from among the local landowners were appointed to these positions, and the leader of the nobility exercised general leadership of the Zemstvo chiefs in the county. So the zemstvo chief became the sovereign manager in his area. Rural and volost gatherings turned out to be completely dependent on him! He could cancel any of their sentences, arrest the village headman or volost foreman and fine all participants in the gathering.
In the same years, a number of other laws were adopted, which made it very difficult for family divisions, the exit from the community of individual peasants and land redistribution. This series of laws was reduced to attempts to preserve the large patriarchal family and community, to strengthen the boss's supervision over them. In such circumstances, it was difficult for the peasant to show economic initiative.
1885 . – Prohibition of night work of adolescents and women, the beginning of labor legislation.
1886 , June. - Regulations on the supervision of factories and plants. Law on mandatory redemption of all state peasants.
1887 , June 18. - Circular of the Minister of Public Education D. Delyanova about the "cook's children", the increase in tuition fees at universities by five times. The introduction of a quota for Jews to enter universities: within the Pale of Settlement 10%, outside the Pale 5%, in Moscow and St. Petersburg - 3%.
In 1887 there was a huge, unprecedented harvest in Russia and a bad one in Europe. The export of grain reached limits hitherto unheard of. The consequence of the huge export was to increase confidence in Russia and increase its credit in foreign markets. This allowed the successor of the Minister of Finance N. Kh. Bunge, I. A. Vyshnegradsky, to radically change the entire financial system.
I. A. Vyshnegradsky saw his main task as restoring the circulation of metallic money. Under him, the Finance Committee considered it desirable to strive to strengthen the value of the ruble by exchanging it for gold at the rate of 1 ruble 50 kopecks in credit cards for 1 metallic ruble. At the same time, Vyshnegradsky continued to accumulate gold reserves needed to cover the exchange. Gold was acquired not by loans, but by purchase, in order to ensure the attraction and retention of gold in the country. Vyshnegradsky was extremely thrifty in appropriating state funds and achieved the complete elimination of excess credits.
1889 .– Closing of world courts with the exception of large cities, limiting the competence of the jury.
1890 . - The new "Regulations on zemstvo institutions", which strengthened government supervision over local self-government. For noble landowners, the property qualification was lowered, for townspeople it was raised. Zemstvo, thus, became an estate: the former law did not distinguish between nobles and non-nobles among landowners. Peasant vowels began to be appointed by the governor from among the candidates announced at the volost meetings. But, in spite of everything, the zemstvo business continued to develop.
Alexander III wisely avoided wars. He acted no less cautiously in domestic politics. When he himself compared the reign of his father and grandfather, the comparison was not in favor of his father: Alexander II "reformed" too much. A gradual return to the old, strengthening the estate system and autocracy - that was the essence of the emperor's domestic policy, and he managed to quickly stabilize the situation after the assassination of Alexander II. However, many of the most acute problems remained in the country, which emerged already in the next reign.
In the reign of Alexander III, the Russian navy was revived and rebuilt. 114 new ships were launched, including 17 battleships and 10 armored cruisers. The displacement of the Russian fleet reached 300 thousand tons; According to this indicator, Russia ranked third in the world after England and France.
In 1887, it was unexpectedly found out that back in 1879 Austria-Hungary and Germany had secretly entered into an alliance directed against Russia and France, and in 1882 Italy joined it. Meanwhile, the Russian public had long been worried that Germany, steadily building up its military power, was beginning to lay claim to the role of the leading European power. The press expressed the idea that only an alliance with France could guarantee the security of Russia. However, the Russian Foreign Ministry continued its attempts to rapprochement with Germany: pro-German sentiments were strong in court circles; many grand dukes were married to German princesses.
And only in 1887, when the Russian diplomat Pavel Shuvalov was negotiating an alliance with the German Chancellor Otto Bismarck, did the chancellor read to the astonished Shuvalov the most important articles of the secret Austro-German agreement. Thus, Russian diplomacy became convinced of the existence of the Triple Alliance, about which vague rumors had previously circulated. Tearing away the veil of diplomatic secrecy from the existence of the alliance, the chancellor hoped that this alliance, ceasing to be secret, would further strengthen Germany's political weight and give it the opportunity to dictate its will to neighbors who, Bismarck believed, would never be able to unite with each other. Indeed, it was hard to imagine that autocratic-monarchical Russia would agree to an alliance with republican France. As for England, she was in "brilliant isolation", considering herself strong enough not to join any military blocs. In addition, relations between Russia and England have been very strained since the Crimean War.
However, the seemingly impossible happened: the Franco-Russian rapprochement began. While the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs continued to seek mutual understanding with Germany, the military entered into a dialogue with France, and then, having not achieved success, Russian diplomats were forced to change their position.
In 1891 French warships visited Kronstadt. Meeting the guests, Alexander III listened to the French anthem - "La Marseillaise" with his head uncovered. The leaders of both powers, having shown state wisdom, decided to neglect ideological differences. This rapprochement ended in 1892 with the conclusion of a secret alliance, supplemented by a military convention. Thus, for the first time in world history, an economic and military-political confrontation between stable groups of great powers began.
Meanwhile, in the financial field, through the efforts of Vyshnegradsky, a balance was finally established between income and expenditure, and for the first time the former exceeded the latter. Another goal - the establishment of a profitable trade balance - was achieved by two far from safe ways. First, all sorts of incentives to increase grain exports, for which the government took advantage of the right to establish railway tariffs and which was indirectly facilitated by the increased collection of arrears and taxes, forcing the peasants to hastily sell grain stocks; secondly, the installation of obstacles to the increase in the import of goods.
In general, in customs policy, Vyshnegradsky's ideal was the minimum import with the largest possible amount of customs income, for the sake of which certain tariff rates increased annually. Finally, the desired goal - however, thanks to a number of harvest years - was successfully achieved. The balance of trade in favor of Russia, which in 1882-1886 averaged 65.9 million rubles annually, reached 327.4 million rubles in 1891. The achievement of such a high preponderance of exports over imports made it possible not only to fully cover foreign payments on metal loans, but also to acquire gold to increase the metal fund.
1891–1892 .- Crop failure and mass famine in twenty provinces. Construction of the Siberian railway connecting Chelyabinsk with Vladivostok.
1892 , June. - New City Regulations, reduction in the number of voters by 2/3.
The brilliant financial activity of Vyshnegradsky, however, did not correspond to the economic condition of the population, moreover, the very first crop failure led the entire system to severe instability. The rapid increase in the tax burden and vigorous measures to collect not only current payments, but also arrears on already canceled fees quickly ruined the peasant population. The same financially successful year 1891 showed a deep impoverishment of the peasantry and demanded urgent measures from the financial administration in the form of spending 161 million rubles on food for the starving.
Having turned over the previous years the free resources of the Treasury and the State Bank into reserves of gold that had no circulation on the domestic market, the government was forced to issue credit notes for 150 million rubles. It was also necessary to ban the export of grain, and the fear caused by this measure for the profitability of the trade balance and the integrity of the gold accumulated with such difficulty forced to resort to an external gold loan, which ended in failure. Expenditure on food for the population absorbed almost all the free funds of the treasury, and the disorder in the economic situation of the areas devastated by crop failure increased the arrears to enormous proportions and was reflected in a significant shortfall in all the main items of state revenue.
It was the successor of I. A. Vyshnegradskii, S. Yu. The new minister in the general direction of financial policy largely returned to the ideas of N. H. Bunge. He put forward as a principle that "financial policy ... should make it its task to reasonably promote the economic success and development of the productive forces of the country."
However, a new increase in the tax burden was required! At the end of 1892, one after another, tax increases were carried out: from beer by 50%, the match tax doubled, the oil excise tax and patent tobacco tax by 50%; they also established an additional tobacco excise tax, increased drinking excise taxes on alcohol and fruit vodkas, and others. In 1893, a state apartment tax was established, which was the first attempt to impose, at least on an outward basis, the total amount of income of payers.
He was engaged in Witte and railways. After all, he began his career as a specialist in the operation of railways. And so he sanctioned the inclusion in the board of private railways, and by the way, also banks, insurance companies, large export trading partnerships, a kind of "wedding generals" - dignitaries who received a lot of money in these exaggerated positions.
On October 20, 1894, 49-year-old Alexander III suddenly died in the Crimea from acute inflammation of the kidneys.
We've already talked about the split Russian society into two unequal parts: the people and the elite, which did not consist of the entire nobility, but only of its highest stratum and, being very few in number, held all the highest power. These two parts were separated by culture, way of life and, of course, its level.
But changes, of course, took place, including in the countryside. For example, kerosene lighting spread even though kerosene was expensive. The huts were lit with small lamps, and in remote places they continued to burn a torch. The standard of living of peasants in Novorossia, Samara, Ufa, Orenburg provinces, in Ciscaucasia and Siberia was significantly higher than in the central provinces, but on the whole the standard of living of the people in Russia was low. This is evidenced by the average life expectancy: in the 1870-1890s, in Russia it was 31 years for men, 33 years for women, and in England, respectively, 42 and 55 years.
Significant changes took place in urban life, communal services developed. Streets were paved in cities (usually with cobblestones), their lighting improved - kerosene, gas, then electric lamps appeared. In the 1860s, a water supply system was built in St. Petersburg and seven provincial cities (Riga, Yaroslavl, Tver, Voronezh, etc.; in Moscow, Saratov, Vilna, Stavropol, it existed until 1861), until 1900 it appeared in forty major cities.
In the early 1880s, the telephone appeared in Russia, and by the end of the 19th century, almost all significant cities had telephone lines. In 1882, the first long-distance telephone line Petersburg-Gatchina was installed, and in the late 1880s, the Moscow-Petersburg line, one of the longest in the world, came into operation.
The growth of the population of large cities necessitated the construction of railways and the development of urban transport. The first horse-drawn tram was organized in the early 1860s in St. Petersburg, in the 1870s it began to work in Moscow and Odessa, in the 1880s in Riga, Kharkov, Revel. From the 1890s, horse cars began to be replaced by tram service; the first tram in Russia went to Kyiv in 1892, the second - in Kazan, the third - in Nizhny Novgorod. However, the outskirts, even in the capitals, remained unsettled.
The semi-rural life of large noble estates was receding into the past. The life of the merchants was Europeanized. The working population of big cities, who used to live in small houses, began to crowd more and more in stone masses, tenement houses, renting closets and beds from the owners of apartments there. At wages for a worker 12-20 rubles per month, a closet - a room with partitions that do not reach the ceiling - cost 6 rubles, a single bed - 2 rubles, a half-bed - 1.5 rubles.
The elite lived incomparably richer.
But besides this “material” split, there was also a split in the spiritual realm. It began from the time of Peter I and only deepened in the next century and a half. In the 19th century, the monarchy continued the work of "Europeanization of Russia", ignoring the traditions of domestic culture, including the spiritual one. Outstanding achievements of European science, literature, art were available only to a limited number of Russian people; they had little effect on the daily life of the common people. The peasants perceived a person of a different culture as a "stranger".
But still the thing higher education and science did not stand still. The number of universities and higher technical educational institutions grew. Russian science reached a new level, divided into fundamental and applied, and achieved remarkable success in the second half of the 19th century. By the end of the century, about five hundred special and scientific publications were published in the empire (by the beginning of the 1850s there were about sixty).
During these years, A. M. Butlerov worked (in the field of studying chemical composition and structure of organic bodies), D. I. Mendeleev (discovery of the periodic table, work in various fields of knowledge); Russian mathematicians P. L. Chebyshov, A. M. Lyapunov, A. A. Markov, S. V. Kovalevskaya. A. G. Stoletov (study of photoelectric phenomena), P. N. Yablochkov (inventor of the arc lamp, “Yablochkov candles”), A. N. Lodygin (creation of incandescent lamps), A. S. Popov (invention of in 1895 radio receiver). A notable phenomenon in science was the work of the astronomer F. A. Bredikhin.
A major contribution to biology and physiology was made by K. A. Timiryazev (problems of photosynthesis, agronomy), I. M. Sechenov (physiology and psychology), I. I. Mechnikov (protective properties of the body); the beginning of the activity of the famous Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov dates back to the 1870-1880s.
Russian geographers and ethnographers made a significant contribution to world science. Encyclopedic knowledge in the field of geography, geology, botany, and statistics was possessed by P.P. Semenov, who became famous for studying the hard-to-reach areas of the Tien Shan. The regions of Central Asia were studied by N. M. Przhevalsky. N. N. Miklukho-Maclay devoted many years to the study of New Guinea.
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