Russia. Large linguo-cultural dictionary. Linguistic and regional dictionaries Linguistic and regional dictionary online
Linguistic and regional studies
linguacountries "caustic
Russian spelling dictionary. / The Russian Academy of Sciences. In-t rus. lang. them. V. V. Vinogradova. - M .: "Azbukovnik". V. V. Lopatin (executive editor), B. Z. Bukchina, N. A. Eskova and others.. 1999 .
See what "linguocultural" is in other dictionaries:
linguistic and cultural- linguocultural ... Spelling Dictionary
linguistic and cultural - … Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language
LINGUISTIC COMMENTARY- LINGUISTIC COMMENTARY. Information about the national cultural component of vocabulary, intended for students of foreign languages ... A new dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)
- / Americana English Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary is the first bilingual dictionary offering numerous encyclopedic information about the United States of America. The publication contains more than 20 thousand dictionary entries on history, ... ... Wikipedia
English-Russian Linguistic and Cultural Dictionary "Americana"- / Americana English Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary is the first bilingual dictionary offering a wealth of encyclopedic information about the United States of America. The publication contains more than 20 thousand dictionary entries on history, ... ... Wikipedia
Foreword- This manual is the first issue of teaching materials for the lecture course on practical stylistics of the Russian language, read to students of the Departments of Journalism and Philology of the Faculty of Humanities of NSU. The author of the manual aims ... Educational dictionary of stylistic terms
red corner- This term has other meanings, see Red Corner. Red Corner (also "Cultural Center") a room, part of a room or a special structure (stand), in any enterprise or institution, allocated for the needs of agitation and ... ... Wikipedia
Miz (appeal)- This term has other meanings, see MS. Miz (eng. Ms [spelling adopted in the UK], Ms. [ˈmɪz], , [ˈməz], [ˈməs]) "Madam ..."; neutral address to a woman in English-speaking countries. Placed before ... Wikipedia
- ■ AVERKIN A.P. My dear man. Songs. M.: Mosk. worker, 1966. ■ Alternative. Experience an anthology of rock poetry. M.: All-Union Youth Book Center, 1991. ■ BAKURSKAYA S.M., MOROZOV S.D. Fundamental changes in working conditions of workers in the USSR //… … Explanatory Dictionary of the Language of Soviet Deputies
AUSTRIA- The Republic of Austria, a state in Central Europe that arose after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy at the end of the First World War. The area is 83.9 thousand square meters. km. The maximum length from west to east is 579 km. It borders on the north with Germany and ... ... Collier Encyclopedia
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- , E. V. Kukhareva. The dictionary is an original lexicographic work of a linguistic and regional orientation, which meets the needs of overcoming difficulties associated with differences in understanding ... Buy for 1578 UAH (Ukraine only)
- Linguistic and Regional Dictionary of Arabic Paremias, Kukhareva E.V.. Linguistic and Cultural Dictionary of Arabic Paremias ...
Modern lexicography is a synthesis of philology and culture in the broad sense of the word. The researchers note that linguocultural lexicography as one of the areas of linguoculturology is developing "particularly actively", and suggest the need to single out a separate area of theoretical research and practical development of problems related to the lexicography of linguoculture - linguoculturography.
Linguistic culture is a relatively new area of lexicography. Many questions in this direction are not sufficiently developed, as evidenced by the different names of dictionaries containing cultural information: linguoculture dictionaries, linguocultural dictionaries, linguoculturological dictionaries. The term "dictionary of linguoculture" is used in the literature as a synonym for the term "linguocultural dictionary", therefore, in our article, following N.A. Lukyanova, we will use two terms: linguocultural and linguoculturological dictionaries. Let us dwell on the interpretation of these terms.
The study of the problem of "language and culture" began with linguistic and regional studies associated with the teaching of the language. The founders of this trend emphasize that by acquiring a language, a person simultaneously penetrates into another national culture, appropriates a huge new spiritual wealth stored by the language being studied.
Dictionaries have a country-specific value and are of a reference and descriptive nature. An example is the linguistic and cultural dictionary Culture of Germany. Linguistic and Cultural Dictionary, edited by prof. N.V. Muravleva contains over 5,000 items reflecting the geographical, historical and cultural realities of Germany. Undoubtedly, the lexical units presented in the dictionary are the bearers of the material and spiritual culture of the people, although the dictionary itself resembles a country guide. The core of the dictionary is: memorable places associated with the great Germans, holidays, traditions, customs, works of literature and art, outstanding architectural monuments, museums, German nature. .
In this type of dictionaries, the vocabulary is dominated by words - realities.
ON THE. Lukyanova notes that in linguocultural dictionaries the ratio of linguistic and cultural information can be different: some of them are more “linguistic”, others are more “culturological”.
Dictionaries that analyze the language in order to identify national-cultural semantics were created already in the 80s of the XX century: Russian phraseological units: Linguistic and cultural dictionary, Russian proverbs, sayings and winged expressions: Linguistic and cultural dictionary.
This is how they understand the essence of V.A. Kozyrev and V.D. Chernyak is a dictionary "designed to promote the study of the culture and history of the country through the description of the ethno-cultural component of the meanings of lexical and phraseological units, (...) due to a specific approach to the description of vocabulary, addressed primarily to foreigners studying the Russian language."
Against the background of two types of linguo-cultural dictionaries, the Russian dictionary stands out. Large Linguistic and Cultural Dictionary ("Russia" BLS). Its authors call their dictionary "a dictionary of a new type", in which new approach to the solution of the main questions: what should be the principles for selecting a vocabulary and describing language units? What is the structure of a dictionary entry? . Dictionary "Russia" created by scientists State Institute Russian language them. A.S. Pushkin. It contains about 2000 words and phrases naming facts, phenomena, concepts, names, etc., which are associated with a certain reality and which are important for understanding its role in the life of Russia. The purpose of the authors of the dictionary was to show the reader what underlies the spiritual unity of Russians, to describe the features of the Russian mentality.
The dictionary differs from other linguistic and cultural dictionaries. First of all, it is more philological than encyclopedic. The authors of the dictionary believe that “the right to be included in the vocabulary of the linguistic and regional dictionary was given to units of the language that have a national and cultural background, that is, a certain set additional information and associations connected with national history and culture and known to all Russians.
Dictionary entries of the "Russia" dictionary are units that name the realities of everyday life, history, culture, nature, which entered into speech as national names of important events, concepts, customs (hut, birch, Victory Day, pies, New Year, Tretyakov Gallery, Varyag, Alexander Nevsky, War and Peace, Mariinsky Theater, Aurora, Arbat, cranberries, rye, tsar and many others). The dictionary shows which expressions, metaphors, comparisons, proverbs, sayings, folk songs, etc. “generates” linguistic reality, as the language itself confirms its importance and significance for all Russians. This really distinguishes the dictionary "Russia" from other linguistic and cultural dictionaries, in which not all included units have a verbally expressed cultural background, which does not give a complete picture of the life of the word in culture and in time.
In many linguo-cultural dictionaries, vocabulary units have only regional value. Their compilers try to find a correspondence of this unit in another culture, identifying similar, close, but not completely identical. These dictionaries often use the path short description and especially often directly indicates the generic affiliation of the phenomenon. These methods of compiling dictionaries are often insufficient.
The main structural unit of the "Russia" dictionary is a dictionary entry, which includes the following components:
Heading word or phrase, sometimes indicating grammatical or stylistic characteristics, e.g. Uncle Stepa.
Interpretation of the title word: the hero of the poem of the same name by S.V. Mikhalkov, written and published in 1935.
Brief encyclopedic reference: This is the ideal positive hero of Soviet children's literature. His name is Stepan Stepanov, but for the children with whom he is friends, he is simply Uncle Styopa.
Description of the national-cultural background of the title word. Information about what associations Russians have about reality: Uncle Styopa is very tall, this helps him to see all the unrest and those who need help. After serving in the Navy, he became a policeman. Everyone respects and loves him for his strength, kindness and justice.
Information about the most famous facts of reflection of the reality indicated by the title word in literature, music, fine arts.
Information about the most stable language and speech units associated with reality: in colloquial speech, Uncle Styopa can be called anyone very tall man.
A common feature of most linguo-cultural dictionaries is that their articles are illustrated. As their authors explain, "visual semantization is offered primarily to articles related to non-equivalent facts and phenomena of Russian reality" . The article Uncle Styopa is also illustrated, an illustration “Uncle Styopa is a policeman” by the artist K. Rotov is attached to it, under which there is an excerpt from the poem by S.V. Mikhalkov:
Stepan did not argue - he took out the traffic light with his hand, looked into the middle, turned something somewhere ...
At that very moment, the right light came on. Traffic restored, no traffic jams!
The guys told us that since then the kids in Moscow have nicknamed Stepan: Uncle Styopa - Traffic light.
The structure of the dictionary entry shows that the authors of the dictionary "Russia", revealing the meaning of linguistic units, use a systematic method of describing a linguocultural object: the semantics of a name (interpretation of the heading word), sigmatics (a brief encyclopedic reference), pragmatics (description of the national and cultural background of the heading word) and syntax (information about the most well-known facts of reflection of realia, information about the most stable language and speech units associated with realia). This approach allows us to classify the dictionary, despite the name, as a linguoculturological one.
Linguoculturology as a kind of modern successor of linguocultural studies focuses on a new system of cultural values put forward by new thinking, modern life society, to a complete, objective interpretation of facts and phenomena and information about various areas of the cultural life of the country.
Cultural linguistics, in contrast to cultural linguistics, is a scientific discipline of a synthesizing type, bordering between the sciences that study culture and philology (linguistics), and not an aspect of language teaching, like cultural linguistics.
In the understanding of V.V. Krasnykh, the main object of linguoculturology is language as a reflection and fixation of culture and culture through the prism of language. The subject of the study of linguoculturology is the units of language and discourse that have culturally significant content, which are the “channel” through which we can enter the cultural and historical layer of the mental-lingual complex.
Language accumulates cultural knowledge, and this requires the need system description this knowledge. As V.V. Vorobyov, "an objective, complete and holistic interpretation of the culture of the people requires an appropriate systematic approach in its description" . The formation of a single cultural space through a dictionary that can act as a "mirror of culture" acquires special significance within the framework of intercultural communication, when the speaker needs to overcome not only the language barrier but also cultural. According to V.G. Kostomarov and N.D. Burvikova, “communication in a new modern manner requires from its participants a large number historical and cultural knowledge and skills to put this knowledge into words and perceive it in words.
Let us give as an example the word bear and the set of knowledge that a foreigner studying the Russian language should assign to him. Dictionary (semantics) and encyclopedic (sigmatics) meanings of the linguoculturological object "bear" do not require special commentary for Polish students. The main culturological competence is formed by the syntactic and pragmatic aspects of its description. Only a systematic method of studying a linguoculturological object, its semantics, syntagmatics, syntactics and pragmatics, allows you to get a holistic view of the unit "bear".
The dictionary "Russia" presents the following characteristics of the linguocultural object bear:
A large carnivorous, omnivorous mammal with a large, heavy, thickly furred body and short legs (interpretation of the title word).
The strongest and largest animal of the Russian forest. Bears are distributed throughout Russia. They usually live in remote places, far from human habitation (...), they are under the protection of the state. The brown bear (...) is very fond of honey. The bear goes to sleep in a den for several winter months (brief encyclopedic reference).
When the bear climbs hind legs he looks like a human. Therefore, the bear was a sacred, totemic animal among many Slavic tribes. Hence the prevalence of the image of a bear in Slavic, including Russian, folklore (description of the national and cultural background of the heading word).
Bear, bear - one of the favorite heroes of Russians folk tales. There he is not very smart, but strong and helps the hero of the tale. The bear in fairy tales has the surname Toptygin, they call him by his first name, and sometimes by his first name and patronymic: Mikhail, Mikhailo Potapych, Misha Ivanych (information about what associations Russians have about the bear).
Everyone in Russia knows the painting by I. I. Shishkin “Morning in a Pine Forest”, a reproduction of which was included in school textbooks for many years. Everyone loves chocolate sweets "Bear clubfoot". Emblem Olympic Games Misha was in Moscow in 1980 ... (information about the most famous facts of the reflection of the reality indicated by the title word in literature, music, fine arts).
The clumsiness of the bear led to the emergence of a stable comparison: clumsy as a bear. Other expressions are: bearish corner, disservice, to share the skin of an unkilled bear (information about the most stable language and speech units associated with reality).
On the basis of his research, I. Ozhechowska notices that the hermeneutic situation among Polish students is created by the translation or interpretation of the adjective clubfoot (to which the authors of the "Russia" dictionary do not pay much attention). Orzechowska notes that the image of a bear stepping with its heels apart causes bewilderment among the respondents. The token lexeme also causes great difficulties for translators.
Modern linguoculturological dictionaries cover with their description different fragments of the linguistic picture of the world, and also give an idea of the linguistic model of the world as a whole and within the framework of the concept followed by the author of a particular dictionary.
Linguocultural lexicography is constantly evolving and modifying. There is a tendency to expand the objects of the dictionary description, new objects of description, new sources actual material(due to the development of mass media, information technologies), the semantic development of objects in the cultural aspect is deepened. Constantly created different types dictionaries, the object of description of which are different, in terms of content, linguocultural units.
“Linguistic and regional studies (from Latin lingua + regional studies) is an aspect in practical course foreign language and the theoretical course of its teaching methods. Originating in the methodology of teaching Russian as a foreign language in the 1970s and 1980s, linguistic and regional studies were originally interpreted as a field of methodology related to the study of ways and means of acquainting foreign students with the reality of the country of the language being studied in the process of learning a foreign language and through this language. In the 90s, the content of linguistic and regional studies was clarified, which began to be interpreted as methodical discipline which implements the practice of selecting and presenting in the educational process information about the national and cultural specifics of speech communication of a linguistic personality in order to ensure the communicative competence of foreigners studying the Russian language "(Azimov E. G., Shchukin A. N. Dictionary of methodological terms (theory and practice of teaching languages), St. Petersburg, 1999, p. 139).
“Linguoculturology (from Latin lingua - language, cultura - culture, logos - teaching) is a scientific discipline of a synthesizing type that studies the relationship and interaction of culture and language in its functioning and reflects this process as an integral structure of units in the unity of their linguistic and extralinguistic content. The object of linguoculturology is the study of the relationship and interaction of culture and language in the process of their functioning, and the subject is material and spiritual culture created by man, i.e. everything that makes up the “linguistic picture of the world”. It is in the circle of related sciences: sociolinguistics, ethnolinguistics, psycholinguistics, linguistic and regional studies, cultural studies” (ibid.).
Culturology - humanities, which studies the patterns of development and functioning of culture, its structure and dynamics, the relationship with other areas of spiritual and material life.
Akulenko V.V. and others. English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary"false friends of the translator". M., 1969.
Gottlieb K. G. M. German-Russian and Russian-German dictionary"false friends of the translator". M., 1972.
Denisova M.A. Linguistics Dictionary. Public education in the USSR / Ed. E. M. Vereshchagin, V. G. Kostomarova. M., 1978; 2nd ed. M., 1983. (The dictionary contains words and phrases that capture the characteristic phenomena public life and culture in the field of public education. With its help, it is possible to get acquainted with the system of public education in the USSR).
Felitsyna V.P., Prokhorov Yu.E. Russian proverbs, sayings and catchphrases: Linguistic Dictionary / Ed. E. M. Vereshchagin, V. G. Kostomarova. M., 1979. (The book contains the most common linguistic (country-valuable) aphorisms that not only capture the collective human experience, but reflect the living conditions of the people - the native speaker, its history, culture, geography of the country).
Rum A.R. and others. Linguistics Dictionary. Great Britain. M., 1980.
Chernyavskaya T. N. The Artistic Culture of the USSR: Linguistic and Cultural Dictionary. M., 1984.
Muravyov V. L. "False Friends of the Translator" (Russian-French). M., 1985.
Dictionary of scribes and bookishness Ancient Russia: In 3 issues. / Ed. D. S. Likhachev. L., 1987-1989.
Picture dictionary of the Russian language / Comp. I. V. Barannikov et al. L., 1989. (Manual for students primary school national schools).
Manlikov M.Kh. Associative dictionary of Russian ethnocultural vocabulary. Frunze, 1989.
Felitsyna V.P., Prokhorov Yu.E. Russian Phraseologisms: Linguistic Dictionary / Ed. E. M. Vereshchagin, V. G. Kostomarova. M., 1990.
Akishina A. A., Kano H., Akishina T. E. Gestures and facial expressions in Russian speech: Linguistic and Cultural Dictionary. M., 1991.
Complete Orthodox Theological Encyclopedic Dictionary (Theological Encyclopedia): In 2 volumes. Reprint edition. M., 1992.
Pavlovsky A. I. Popular Bible Dictionary. M., 1994.
Kharchenko L.I. People are greeted by clothes... Secrets of the Russian costume: Linguistic and cultural dictionary. SPb., 1994.
Slavic mythology: Encyclopedic Dictionary / Nauch. Ed. V. Ya. Petrukhin, T. A. Agapkina, L. N. Vinogradova, S. M. Tolstaya. M., 1995.
Slavic Antiquities: Ethnolinguistic Dictionary: In 5 volumes / Ed. acad. N. I. Tolstoy. T. 1 (A-G). M., 1995. (The publication continues.)
Dictionary of Russian writers / Comp. doc. Wieslaw Olbrych. Under total ed. Florian Neuvashny. Warsaw: Vedza povshekhna, 1995.
Kirsanova R. M. Costume in Russian artistic culture of the 18th - first half of the 20th centuries. (Experience encyclopedia) / Ed. T. G. Morozova, V. D. Sinyukova. M., 1995. (The encyclopedia is dedicated to the costume as a means psychological characteristics in the works of Russian painting and literature of the 18th-20th centuries. The book contains illustrations, name and subject indexes). |
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Slavic mythology: Encyclopedic Dictionary / Nauch. ed. V. Ya. Petrukhin, T. A. Agapkina, L. N. Vinogradova, S. M. Tolstaya. M., 1995.
Prokhorov Yu. E., Borisenko V. I., Guo Likai. History and culture of Russia. Linguistic and cultural dictionary-reference book. Beijing, 1996.
Slavic Antiquities: Ethnolinguistic Dictionary: In 5 volumes / Ed. acad. N. I. Tolstoy. T. 1 (A-G). M., 1995; T. 2. (D-K). M., 1999. (The publication continues).
Manlikov M.Kh. Russian language and Russian culture: ethnocultural dictionary. Bishkek, 1998.
Tkachenko G.A. Culture of China: Dictionary-reference book. M., 1999.
Balakai A.G. Good word: Dictionary-reference book of Russian speech etiquette and common people's benevolent treatment of the 19th-20th centuries. Kemerovo, 1999. Vol. 1 (A-O); Vol. 2 (P-Y). The same: Balakai A.G. Dictionary of Russian speech etiquette: 2nd ed., corrected. and additional M., 2001.
Popular Art Encyclopedia: Architecture. Painting. Sculpture. Graphic arts. Decorative art. M., 1999. (The book contains information about the types, styles and trends of art, terms, prominent figures and the art of individual countries).
Sklyarevskaya G. N. Dictionary of Orthodox Church Culture. SPb., 2000.
Kapitsa F.S. Slavic Traditional Beliefs, Holidays and Rituals: A Handbook. M., 2000.
Human. Philosophical-encyclopedic dictionary. M., 2000. (400 words. articles covering all aspects and components of human existence - from genetics and physiology to the highest manifestations of the spirit).
Stepanov Yu. S. Constants: Dictionary of Russian culture. 2nd ed., rev. and additional M., 2001. (The subject of the dictionary is the concepts (fundamental concepts) of Russian culture as part of the pan-European culture. Each article includes such subsections as etymology, early European history, Russian history, today).
LINGUISTIC DICTIONARIES
Linguistic and cultural dictionaries are designed to promote the study of the culture and history of the country through the description of the ethno-cultural component of the meanings of lexical and phraseological units. Due to the specific approach to the description of vocabulary, they are addressed primarily to foreigners studying the Russian language. Many linguo-cultural dictionaries are built according to the thematic principle. Thus, the linguo-cultural dictionary "People's Education in the USSR" contains over 160 dictionary entries, which include vocabulary related to preschool education, school education, a pioneer organization, higher and secondary specialized education. The dictionary "Artistic Culture of the USSR" includes vocabulary by sections: theatrical, pop, circus, choreographic art, cinema, fine and decorative arts, architecture, folk arts and crafts, museum work, etc. Vocabulary is presented in 220 dictionary entries. The index of thematic compatibility in a concentrated form contains all the vocabulary related to this topic. It is impossible not to note the high degree of ideologization of regional dictionaries published in the Soviet era.
A special selection of material is distinguished by linguo-country-based dictionaries and "Russian phraseological units" and earlier and "Russian proverbs, sayings, winged expressions", containing the most common stable combinations and paroemias of the Russian language, which are commented on from the point of view of their reflection of Russian history, literature and culture .
Non-traditional material for lexicography is presented in the dictionary "Gestures and facial expressions in Russian speech". It describes about 200 phrases that serve in Russian to denote gestures and facial expressions. (blink eyes, wrinkle forehead, raise eyes, wring hands etc.). In the dictionary | an attempt was made to combine in a lexicographic description (existing in Russian speech with a description of the gestures themselves, they denote. Each dictionary entry includes a description of the gesture, its characteristics, verbal formulas expressing this gesture in writing, examples from the literature or a recording of a conversation. Most articles are illustrated.
The material, which is unusual for a dictionary description, is also contained in the reference publication Kind Word. The dictionary offers 6000 words and stable formulas of greetings, appeals, acquaintances, requests, invitations, suggestions, advice, gratitude, apologies, wishes, congratulations, praise, compliments, consolation, condolences, farewell. The dictionary is richly illustrated with examples from works of Russian fiction, folk dialects, colloquial speech and vernacular.
, CapoX., Gestures and facial expressions in Russian speech: Linguistic and cultural dictionary. - M.: Rus. lang.. 1991. - 144 p.
Good word: Dictionary-reference book of Russian speech etiquette and common people's benevolent treatment of the XIX-XX centuries: In 2 volumes - Kemerovo, 1999. - V. 1. - 314 p.; T. 2. - 320 p.
Linguistic Dictionary: Public Education in the USSR / Ed. , . - M.: Rus. lang., L978. - 277 p.
ff. Artistic Culture of the USSR: Linguistic Dictionary / Under the editorial board. , . - M.: Rus. yaz., 1984. - 335 p.
, Russian phraseological units: Linguistic and regional dictionary. - M.: Rus. yaz., 1990. - 222 p.
, Prokhorov 10. E. Russian proverbs, sayings, winged expressions: Linguistic Dictionary / Ed. , . - M.: Rus. yaz., 1970. - 240 p.
They are greeted by clothes... Secrets of the Russian costume: Ligvostranovedchesky dictionary. - St. Petersburg: Astra-Lux. 1994. - 106 p.
LINGUOCULTUROLOGICAL DICTIONARIES
The integration of various areas of humanitarian knowledge makes it relevant to create a new type of linguocultural and logical dictionaries that represent the content of cultural phenomena in lexicographic form. Of course, in such dictionaries the importance of encyclopedic information is very high, but it is equally important to identify the semantic potential of a word that accumulates the cultural memory of the people.
The “Dictionary of Orthodox Church Culture”, created by the author, is called explanatory-encyclopedic, since, on the one hand, it is made as explanatory, i.e. one in which the meaning of each word is interpreted, connections with other words are shown, grammatical characteristics are given, stylistic notes, on the other hand, contains a large amount of encyclopedic information. The dictionary describes the words associated with Orthodoxy: the basic concepts of the Christian religion, elements and objects of worship, sacraments, names of the church hierarchy, vestments, elements church calendar, Orthodox holidays, as well as the names of famous biblical characters and the most revered Orthodox saints. As the author notes, "quotes from the texts of the New Testament, from the educational religious, as well as
secular literature perform different functions: they supplement and deepen the interpretation, present a variety of information about church culture, introduce it into the circle of church reading. "Here is a fragment of the dictionary:
Diabolsky.(colloquial) diabolical, th, oh. Pertaining to the devil. the devil associated with him. Sin was rooted in the very core of the human spirit, which chose the diabolical system of the world, consisting in the mutual eating of each other, "in order to live oneself." Bishop Vasily (Rodzianko). The theory of the collapse of the universe and the faith of the fathers. In accordance with Christian worldview, matter is never neutral. If it does not "correlate" with God, that is, it is not considered and not used!! as a means of communication with God, as a way of living in Him, it becomes the bearer and abode of the devil's forces. Prot. Alexander Shmeman. Water and Spirit. Sarov's fate. prepared new scarytests. Whether the devil's finger pointed Lavrenty Beria to this holy place in Russia, only here, in the Sarov Monastery, the Stalinist executioner, in whose charge. were also all the work (because of their extreme secrecy) to create nuclear and thermonuclear weapons, created the production of hydrogen bombs. disappeared ancient city Sarov, a top-secret closed city of prisoner physicists "Arzamas-16" arose. Monuments of the Fatherland, 1992: No. 2-3.
The created "Dictionary of Russian traditional spirituality" is also devoted to the lexicographic description of spiritual vocabulary. The author emphasizes the refusal to oppose the philological and encyclopedic methods of lexicography, the anthropocentricity of the lexicographic description. Most of the lexical units associated with Orthodoxy refer to agnonymous words, which increases the pragmatic significance of the dictionary. 1,500 headings have been selected for the dictionary, including about 300 winged expressions that have Holy Scripture as a source (do your bit, drinkcup to the bottom, grapes of wrath, leave no stone unturned). Here is an example of a dictionary entry of a forthcoming dictionary (Morkovkin 1999):
WORSHIP VOLKHVOV, worship i, unit, cf.
Performed by the magi, brought to Bethlehem by a miraculous star, the mystical rite of confirming the Messiahship of Jesus Christ, consisting in prostrating themselves before the Infant Christ and offering
him a gift of gold, frankincense and myrrh. Eng. Adoration of the Magi. (The adoration of the Magi is described only in the Gospel of Matthew (2. L-12). The gifts of the Magi are usually interpreted as follows: gold is presented to Jesus Christ as the King of the earth, frankincense - as the King of heaven and myrrh - as a symbol of the future earthly fate of Christ.
The dictionary describing the constants of Russian culture does not belong to linguistic dictionaries, but, written by a prominent Russian linguist, it is actively used in the latest linguistic works. The dictionary is the first experience of systematization of such cultural values, which are embedded in concepts, associations. The dictionary describes the constants: "Truth", "Law", "Love", "Word", "Soul", etc. In the description of cultural concepts, data from linguistic dictionaries of various types are actively used.
"The Dictionary of Culture of the 20th Century" contains dictionary entries devoted to specific cultural phenomena of the 20th century, those concepts that, for various reasons, have acquired particular relevance. (Joke, depression, babytiv, cinema, kitsch, dream, phone, text, theater of the absurd and etc.).
Dictionary of culture of the XX century. - M.: Agraf, 1997. - 384 p.
Dictionary of Orthodox Church Culture. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2000. - 270 p.
Stepanov Yu, S. Dictionary of Russian culture: Research experience. - M.: School "Languages of Russian culture", 1997. - 824 p.
P O G R A M M A "SL O V A R I XX 1 C A)) \ 8" LARGE w LINGUISTIC DICTIONARY 2000 realities of history, culture, nature, life, etc. Under the general editorship of Professor Yu Prokhorova AST-PRESS Moscow YA VYUNOV, Candidate of Historical Sciences SK MILOSLAVSKAYA, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences EG ROSTOVA, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences OE FROLOVA, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences Alt. N. CHERNYAVSKAYA I, Candidate of Historical Sciences V.P. CHUDNOV a: Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences E. G. ROSTOVA Consultant: Candidate of Historical Sciences S. M. SHAMIN Russian Academy Sciences Yu.L. VOROTNIKOV, Dr. Philol. Sciences L.P. KRYSIN Scientific editor - lexicographer: Ph.D. philol. Sciences T. Yu. POZNYAKOVA Copyright reserved. None of the parts of this Dictionary can be reproduced, forwarded or transmitted in any form and by any means: mechanical, electronic, photocopying, sound recording, etc. - without the prior written permission of AST-PRES S KNIGA LLC. Published with the financial support of the Federal Agency for Press and Mass Communications within the framework of the Federal Program "Culture of Russia". R76 Russia. Large Linguistic Dictionary / Under the general. ed. Yu.E. About the choir. - M.: AST-PRESS BOOK. - 736 p.: ill. - (Fundamental dictionaries). ISBN 978-5-462-00590-9 This unique dictionary has been under development for more than fifteen years. Scientists of the State Institute of the Russian Language. A.S. Pushkin created a dictionary in which they showed what underlies the spiritual unity of Russians, the features of the Russian mentality. For the first time, dictionary entries (there are about 1000 of them) are headed by words naming such realities of life, history, culture, nature, etc., which entered into speech as national names of significant events, concepts, objects, customs (hut, birch, Victory Day, Mariinka", "Aurora", Arbat, Battle for Moscow, "A Christmas tree was born in the forest" and many others). All dictionary entries are marked keywords naming facts, phenomena, concepts, names, etc., which are associated with this reality and are also important for understanding its role in the life of Russia. About 2000 words and phrases are described in this way. For the first time in the dictionary, it is shown what expressions, metaphors, comparisons, proverbs, sayings, folk songs, etc. “generate” linguistic realities, how the language itself confirms its importance and significance for all Russians. The dictionary is richly illustrated and designed for the widest range of readers - for everyone who wants to know their country and language better, for journalists, translators, foreign specialists in Russian. UDKSO BBK 81.2Ros-5 ©LLC AST-PRE S S BOOK. 2007 © State Institute of the Russian Language. A.S. Pushkin, © ISBN 978-5-462-00590-9 2007 IT.H. Chernyavskaya 1. S.K. Milaslavskaya, E.G. Rostova, O.E. Frolova, V.I. Borisenko, Yu.A. Vyunov, V.P. Chudnov, 2007 FROM THE AUTHORS Linguistic and Regional Dictionary "Russia" is a dictionary of a new type. Dictionary articles are titled with words, phrases, phrases that have entered the Russian language and speech as well-known names of objects, phenomena, customs, events, personalities, works of art that are significant for all Russians, for example: hut, pirogues, birch, New Victory Day year, "Mariinsky", Tretyakov Gallery, "Varyag", "Aurora", Alexander Nevsky, Sergius of Radonezh, baptism, bread and salt, "Bogatyrs", "The Appearance of Christ to the People", "A Christmas Tree Was Born in the Forest", "War and world", "Crime and Punishment" and many others. etc. The importance and significance of such words is confirmed by the language itself: they can form phraseological units, metaphors and comparisons (the expression “easier than a steamed turnip” is stored in the language to denote the simplest things); enter into proverbs and sayings (“The hut is not red with corners, but red with pies”); give names to new objects and events (the name of the noble family of the Stroganovs was included not only in the name of the art school founded by Count S.G. Stroganov, but also in the name of one of the dishes of Russian cuisine - beef stroganoff); name situations (picture by I.E. Repin “They didn’t wait”); have figurative meanings (the word "bast" can be called an illiterate person); be used as a characteristic of a person (Gogol's Khlestakov, Manilov, Plyushkin or Leskovsky's Levsha). Such words and expressions can also serve as signs or symbols for Russians of important events and phenomena in Russian history and culture. About all this and tell the articles of the dictionary. In the text of dictionary entries, keywords are highlighted that denote facts, phenomena, concepts, names, etc., which are associated with the named reality and are also important for understanding its role in the life of Russia. You can learn more about this by referring to the relevant articles. The work on the dictionary was carried out by a team of researchers and teachers of the A.S. Pushkin for about fifteen years. When working on the dictionary, dictionaries were analyzed explanatory dictionaries and most famous encyclopedias and encyclopedic dictionaries. The main among them were - Dictionary of the Russian language S.I. Ozhegov, Dictionary of the Russian language in four volumes, edited by A.P. Evgenieva, Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by A.I. Molotkov, linguistic and cultural dictionary "Russian proverbs, sayings and popular expressions" V.P. Felitsyna and Yu.E. Prokhorova, Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary, Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary. The authors also relied on the data of the Russian Associative Dictionary and local associative experiments conducted on the basis of the Institute. Until 2002, T.N. Chernyavskaya, whose bright memory is kept by her colleagues and co-authors. The final concept of the dictionary was developed jointly with the AST-PRESS publishing house. The team of authors expresses their deep gratitude to T.M. Derevianko and I.K. Sazonova, under the guidance and with the personal participation of which the work on the manuscript was going on, as well as to all the employees of the publishing house who took part in preparing the dictionary for publication. We are also grateful to the scientific editor of the dictionary T.Yu. Poznyakova for her highly professional work, constructive and benevolent criticism, which ensured the lexicographic harmony of dictionary entries. At various stages of work on the dictionary, we received professional help and support from many colleagues working in the field of teaching Russian as a foreign language. For this help, the team of authors sincerely thanks A.V. Abramovich, E.L. Korchagin, L.V. Kovalenko, V.V. Morkov Tomakhina, kina, E.M. Orlov, V.M. Solovyova, G.I. Tungusov, S.M. Shamina, A. Soproni. We hope that the linguistic and cultural dictionary lr.d. l "Russia" will be of interest to everyone who loves Russia, its language and culture, and useful to those who study or teach Russian as a foreign language, and those for whom Russian is their native language. Please send your feedback about the dictionary to the publishing house "AST-PRESS" at the address: Russia, 107078, Moscow, Ryazansky lane, 3. E-mail: [email protected] E.G. Rostova FOREWORD The concept of the linguo-cultural dictionary "Russia" is a development of the theory of linguo-cultural lexicography, which was initiated in the works of E.M. Vereshchagin, V.G. Kostomarova, V.V. Morkovkina, Yu.E. Prokhorova, A.R. Ruma, G.D. Tomakhina, V.P. Felitsyna, G.V. Chernova, T.N. Chernyavskaya and many other domestic and foreign linguists and methodologists. Compared with other dictionaries devoted to the language and culture of a number of countries,1 the linguistic regional dictionary "Russia" provides a new approach to solving the main questions that arise for the authors of dictionaries: what should be the principles for selecting a dictionary and describing language units? What is the structure of a dictionary entry? The concept of a dictionary makes it possible to identify a clear difference between country-specific (essentially encyclopedic) and linguistic-cultural (essentially philological) dictionaries, which until now has not always been possible in educational lexicography, as well as to consistently implement the basic principle of linguistic-cultural knowledge - connection, interpenetration language and culture1. First of all, this refers to solving the problem of selecting dictionary units. The right to enter the vocabulary of the linguo-cultural dictionary was given to units of the language that have national11; 0(t cultural background, that is, some,�,� a set of additional information and associations related to national history and culture and known to all Russians. Moreover, the national cultural background of a language unit necessarily includes well-known words and expressions Thus, the vocabulary includes: 1 Rum A.R. and others 1. Words and phrases naming facts and phenomena of nature, national history and culture, for example: Battle of Kulikovo, bell, cranberry, linden, forest, Patriotic war of 1812, field, rye, perestroika, tsar, rank, cabbage soup, etc. 2. Proper names: toponyms, anthroponyms (names of real people - historical figures, statesmen, scientists, writers, etc.; names of mythical characters , folklore and literary), for example: Neva, Siberia, Kamchatka, Alexander Nevsky, G. A. Potemkin, Petr /, D. I. Mendeleev, A. S. Pushkin, L. N. Tolstoy, I. I. Levitan, Baba Yaga, Ivanushka the Fool, Oblomov, Cheburashka and others. works of art, music, theater and cinema, e.g.:<�:Богатыри», <�:Дама с собачкой», <�:Лебединое озеро», «Место встречи изме нить нельзя», «Осенний марафон», <�:Ревизор», <�:Темная ночь», «Три сестры», «Чапаев» и др. Это существенно отличает лингвострановедчес кий словарь «Россия» от других лингвострановедче ских словарей, в которых либо не все включенные единицы обладают словесно выраженным культур ным фоном (многие имеют лишь страноведческую ценность); либо этот фон не описывается; либо линг вострановедческая информация, относящаяся к како му-либо одному слову, «размыта» по разным статьям, что также не дает полной картины жизни слова в культуре и во времени. Например, во всех лингвост рановедческих словарях, посвященных языку и куль туре разных стран, есть статьи о реках, которые счита ются нацией главными водными артериями страны, и с ними обычно связаны какие-либо образные выра жения, произведения фольклора, литературы и изоб- Лингвострановедческий словарь «Великобритания». 1978; Николау Н.Г Греция: Лингвострановедческий словарь. М., 1995; Американа: Англо-русский лингвострановедческий словарь/ Под ред. и общ. руководством Г.В. Чернова. Смоленск, 1996; Веденина Л.Г. и стралия � др. Франция: Лингвострановедческий словарь. М., 1997; Ощепкова В.В., Петриковская А.С. Ав � Новая Зеландия: Лингвострановедческий словарь. М., 1998; Мальцева ДГ. Германия: страна и яэык: Лингвострано ведче кии словарь. М., 1998; То-":!ахин ГД. США: Лингвострановедческий словарь. М., 1999; МураRЛева Н.В., Муравлева Е.Н. Ав 2003; Тома.хин Г.Д Соединенное Королевспю Великобритании и Северной Ирландии: Лингвострановедческий словарь. М., 2003. стрия. Лингвострановедческии словарь. М., v ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ разительного искусства, духовные ценности нации. В словаре Францию> (1997), containing 7000 dictionary entries, an article on r. The Seine has a purely regional, encyclopedic character: Seine (La) Seine / / River. It originates at an altitude of 471 m in the denarment of Côte-d "Or (Cote-d" Og). It flows through the territory of 14 departments of four economic regions - Burgundy, Champagne-Ardenne, Les de France, Upper Normandy. The length is 776 km, the basin area covers 1/7 of the territory of the country. Vegetable growing and horticulture are developing in the river valley (especially in Ile-de-France), wheat and sugar beets are grown, and dairy and meat cattle are bred. On the river there are large industrial centers - Paris, Rouen. In the dictionary "Great Britain" (1978), containing 9500 entries, the entry "Thamesi" (river) is not included at all, but there are 6 entries in the names of which include the tononym Thames - Thames: this is a car brand, publisher, cardboard brand, name railroad express, the name of the rowing competition, the name of the television station. Each of these articles contains minimal encyclopedic information about the respective object. The Dictionary Index Germany: country and language (1998) mentions the river Rhein-Rhine 22 times, with the most information (almost a full page of a large format book) contained in the Geography section. It offers both encyclopedic information about the river as a geographical object, and, mainly, information about the attitude of the Germans to the Rhine, about figurative expressions in which the river is mentioned, about legends and famous literary works dedicated to it (verses by F. Schiller and G. Heine), i.e. proper linguo-strano-vedic information. As it can be seen from the examples given, only in the dictionary “Germany: country and language” there is a rather extensive linguistic and regional material collected in one place, in other dictionaries it is either distributed under different articles, or is absent in general, and “is replaced by purely regional information. (Similar results are obtained from the analysis of dictionaries regarding cultural and linguo-cultural information related to the capital of the country, with great historical events, the names of prominent figures in history and culture). An essential feature of the dictionary "Russia" (and this is its novelty) is the inclusion in the dictionary of a large number of proper names, in particular, anthroponyms, a strict selection of which was carried out in accordance with the stated criterion. As a rule, it is these proper names, or rather, the persons they name, that are objects of fine art, are reflected in literary and musical works, in the art of cinema, and folklore and literary characters receive various reinterpretations in other types of art. FOREWORD Among the anthroponyms included in the dictionary are the names of statesmen, historical figures, military leaders, writers, artists, literary and folklore characters. Each name (surname) is well known. However, not all well-known anthroponyms of Russian culture were included in the vocabulary of the linguistic and cultural dictionary. And this is the essential difference between regional studies (as well as cultural studies) and linguistic regional studies dictionaries. This dictionary includes only those names of prominent figures in the history and culture of Russia, whose national and cultural background is expressed in specific, well-known linguistic units. Moreover, the richer this background, the more such units and the more diverse they are. For example, the dictionary contains articles by L.N. Tolstoy (it talks about Tolstoyism, a sweatshirt, etc.) and G.A. Potemkin (it mentions the cruiser Prince Potemkin of Tauride, the film Battleship Potemkin, the Potemkin Villages and the Potyomkin Staircase), but there is no article by M.Yu. Lermontov, since the cultural background of the name of this great Russian poet is not expressed in any well-known linguistic units. A significant part of the dictionary consists of articles devoted to literary and musical works, paintings, films. Many of these works are now called cult works. The existence of the titles of these works in modern Russian speech is interesting in that they are often and variously transformed (for example, in the headlines of printed media) in order to create some new meanings, in particular, in order to create a comic effect. For example, the title of the movie "The meeting place cannot be changed" becomes the title of the newspaper article "The meeting place can be changed. Well-known names of works of art can also be used to name situations, for example, in an appropriate situation, Russians can say: 11we were waiting (an allusion to I.E. Repin’s painting “They didn’t wait”). Literary works and films are sources of catchwords and expressions, the understanding of which is often associated with knowledge of the plot and artistic features of the work. A large number of well-known texts are also mentioned in dictionary entries devoted to facts, events, phenomena, or personalities with which they are closely connected or motivated (for example, the article Varyag mentions famous songs dedicated to the feat of Russian sailors). The choice of one or another variant of introducing a well-known text into the dictionary is due to the observations of the group of authors on the functioning of such texts in modern Russian speech and the analysis of the data of a survey conducted among students of the State Institute of the Russian Language. A.S. Pushkin. The problem of the headword is also solved in a new way in the dictionary, i.e. choice of the name of the object, copy> - FOREWORD E ry is described in the article (in the event that options are possible). The dictionary is focused on colloquial speech, therefore, in cases where there are several names of the same object in the language, the one that most often functions in speech is chosen as the heading. Moreover, it can be complete or incomplete, official or colloquial. So, for example, for the headings of dictionary entries, the words are taken from the word: potato (not potatoes), May Day (and not the Spring and Labor Day), Tretyakov Gallery (and not the State Tretyakov Gallery), .-, Taganka ”(and not the Moscow Theater dramas and comedies on Taganka). This choice is also related to the fact that in speech different names of the same object enter into different syntactic relationships and are used in different speech situations. We say to go to the Taganka Theater, but go to the Taganka; you can invite friends to the First of May, but not to the Spring and Labor Day; the restaurant menu will say fried potatoes, the housewife will cook fried potatoes; In a children's cartoon, the wolf will be called gray, the bear Toptygin, etc. However, the choice of one of the names of the object as the title word does not exclude the mention of its other names. Thus, the dictionary offers a kind of series of names (paradigmatic series) denoting the same object, which, in the opinion of the authors, also reflects the connection between language and culture. An illustrative example can be the following paradigmatic series: Petersburg, St. Petersburg, Leningrad, Petrograd, the city of white nights, the city of Petrov, Northern Palmyra, Northern Venice, the cradle of the revolution. The importance of such a solution to the problem of the headword is also related to the fact that some names of objects are associated with certain historical periods - and therefore can only be used in appropriate contexts. It cannot be said that A.S. Pushkin lived in Leningrad, and K.S. Stanislavsky and Vl.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko created the Moscow Art Theater. A.P. Chekhov. In a new way, the dictionary solves the problem of correlating the volume of country-specific and linguistic-cultural information, i.e. the actual content of the dictionary. In the structure of a dictionary entry, two obligatory components are singled out: a country-specific (encyclopaedic, reference) part and a linguistic-cultural part, which describes the national-cultural background of the heading word, presenting it in specific language units. The obligatory presence of this part, in the final analysis, is the criterion that defines an article as a linguo-cultural study (as opposed to a regional study, in which linguistic information is usually absent). Based on the foregoing, and also taking into account the domestic lexicographic tradition, in the linguo-strategic dictionary. -, Russia. a new structure of the dictionary entry is proposed, including the following components: VI FOREWORD 1. Heading word or phrase, in some cases with indication of grammatical or stylistic characteristics, naming options. The heading unit of the dictionary entry is the variant most commonly used in speech. Other options are given side by side, after the most common one (for example, in the article St. George's Cross, after the heading word, the full name of the order is given - the Military Order of the Holy Great Martyr and Victorious George). 2. Interpretation of the head word. For common nouns - the interpretation of the lexical meaning, for example: 33buka - a set of letters accepted in this script, arranged in the established order. For proper names - an encyclopedic interpretation, for example: Amur - a river in the Far East, one of the largest rivers in the world. 3. Brief encyclopedic reference containing information about the place and significance of this reality in the history and culture of Russia. Articles devoted to public figures, figures of science and culture give their brief biographies. 4. Description of the national and cultural background of the title word. Information about what associations Russians have about the reality indicated by the heading unit; the status of this reality in the ordinary consciousness of a native speaker. Information about the polarization (if any) of the assessment of realia among different segments of the population, changes in the national-cultural background of realia, i.e. changes in the understanding of the role of this or that phenomenon and attitudes towards it in different strata of Russian society in different historical periods. For example: the attitude in modern Russian society to the October Revolution of 1917, the Civil War and other historical events of the 20th century. 5. Information about the most well-known facts of the reflection of the reality, denoted by the heading word, in literature, music, and figurative art. So, for example, the article Volga implies a mandatory mention of Russian folk songs associated with the Volga, a poem by N.A. Nekrasov, paintings by I.E. Repin and I. I. Levitan. 6. Information about the most stable linguistic and speech units associated with the reality indicated by the heading word - ways of verbal expression of the national cultural background: 1) the presence, along with the main one, of other (usually colloquial) names (potato, potato, State Tretyakov Gallery, -, Tretyakovka, Moscow Drama and Comedy Theater on Taganka - "Taganka"); 2) the heading word has a figurative lexical meaning (burdock, mistress, village); 3) the heading name has its own nominal meaning (Khlestakov, Chichikov); 4) the presence of permanent epithets in the headword (Volga-mother, Don-father); Vll FOREWORD 5) the inclusion of the heading word in the composition of phraseological units (porridge from an ax, dance from the stove, easier than a steamed turnip); 6) the inclusion of the heading word in the composition of proverbs or sayings (not everything is Shrovetide for a cat; cabbage soup and porridge are our food; the hut is not red with corners, but red with pies); 7) the inclusion of the headword in the stable comparison as an object of comparison (angry like a dog; cunning like a fox; hungry like a wolf); 8) the use of the headword as a symbol of something (the cruiser Aurora as a symbol of the October Revolution of 1917, the birch as a symbol of Russia, the Bronze Horseman as a symbol of St. Petersburg); 9) the use of the title word as a euphemism (damn, horseradish); 10) the use of a heading word in a sentence as a predicate (we have him - Uncle Styopa; here you have just the Hermitage); 11) the possibility of correlating the headword with names known in world culture (Paul 1 Russian Hamlet, Petersburg - Venice of the North); 12) the existence of nominal adjectives or nouns (Levitan's landscape, Pugachevshchina, Trotskyism); 13) the existence of widely known indirect names (Pushkin is the sun of Russian poetry; - Maly Theater - Ostrovsky's house); 14) the use of a name for the indirect name of an object (Petersburg - the city of Petrov); 15) the use of the name as the name of household items, products, tools, geographical objects, media, etc. (perfume set Moidodyr, beer Rasputin, website Izba-reading room); 16) the emergence of a mythical character based on the name of a historical person (Chapaev as a character of jokes). Moreover, the national-cultural background of many realities is expressed verbally in several ways. For example, the well-known facts about the origin of Lomonosov and his contribution to Russian science are expressed by the indirect names Arkhangelsk peasant and the first Russian university; Lomonosov was named after Moscow State University, a city, an underwater ridge in the Arctic Ocean and a current in the Atlantic Ocean. In addition, the words belonging to Lomonosov, which have become winged, are widely known: The sciences nourish the young, They give joy to the old; The Russian land can give birth to its own Platons and quick-witted Newtons. Dictionary articles also meet the requirements previously developed in linguistic and cultural lexicography1: 1 FOREWORD 1) informative sufficiency, suggesting that the amount of information offered by the dictionary should be sufficient for the reader to form an adequate idea of the national and cultural background of the language unit; 2) non-redundancy, i.e. the requirement to include "-.!_ dictionary entries only those information, without the knowledge of which the correct understanding and use of the word is difficult or impossible. Information of an accidental nature, ignorance of which does not entail difficulties in understanding and using the language units included in the dictionary, follower but are omitted; 3) reliability, i.e. the information provided by the dictionary must have the property of unconditional reliability, confirmed by the data of the latest reference publications. Most of the entries in the dictionary are illustrated (by reproductions of paintings or photographs). Visual semantization is offered primarily The illustrations of the dictionary, in the opinion of the authors, meet the following requirements: 1) reflect the essential aspects of the designated object or phenomenon; 2) are oriented to the text of the dictionary entry, which I carry t illustration and text of the dictionary entry; 3) available for perception, i.e. performed in a realistic manner (with the exception of special cases determined by the content of the article); 4) are widely known, since it is with them that, first of all, visual images of any facts, events, phenomena are associated in the minds of Russians. In addition to the corpus of dictionary entries, the dictionary includes an Index of the names of all objects, facts, phenomena, and personalities mentioned in the dictionary, associated with Russian history and culture. It includes units of the dictionary, as well as words highlighted in bold in the entries of the dictionary. Their total volume (more than 2000 items) is almost three times the number of dictionary entries. In parentheses after each unit there are words that can be called key words (highlighted in bold), since it is with their help that the meaning of the semantized word inside the dictionary entry is explained. The second group (after see) includes units that have enak *. They are also associated with the word being semantized, but represent its broader semantic connections, introduce it into a broad cultural and historical context, since each word with the sign * has a separate dictionary entry. With the help of this section of the dictionary, the reader can represent the word he is interested in in semantic and associative relations with other language units, Vereshchagin E.M., Kostomarov V.G., Morkovkin V.V. Prospectus of the educational linguo-cultural dictionary of the modern Russian literary language / / Problems of educational lexicography / Ed. P.N. Denisova and V.V. Morkovkin. M., 1977. FORE THE WORD included in the dictionary. For example: birch (“Birch”, birch bark, birch bark letters, broom, S.A. Yesenin, “Golden Autumn”, Karelian birch, A.I. Kuindzhi, torch, boletus, Trinity; see bathhouse *, Veliky Novgorod * , spring*, diploma*, “The Rooks Have Arrived”*, mushrooms*, Twelfth Holidays*, “Golden Autumn”*, porridge*, peasant*, bast shoes*, I. I. Levitan*, forest*, oven*, Russia* , silver*, taiga*, tundra*, round dance*, church*). The appendices dictionary is supplemented by: 1. A list of all linguistically and regionally valuable phraseology given in the dictionary entries (“talking” names, nicknames, titles, accepted addresses; Vlll PREFACE; language units formed from proper names, phraseological units, stable comparisons, proverbs, proverbs, catchwords, quotations), which performs a reference function: it can be used to determine in which dictionary entry the word or expression of interest to the reader is found (section "Linguistic and Regional Phraseology"). 2. List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites located in Russia. 3. Samples of Russian handwritten and printed texts from the 9th to the 20th centuries. 4. Well-known dates, holidays and memorable days. E.G. Rostov HOW TO USE THE DICTIONARY Composition of the dictionary The dictionary includes words and phrases that are the names of various objects, facts, phenomena related to Russian history and culture. These language units have a national cultural background, i.e. some set of additional information and associations related to national history and culture and known to all Russians. Moreover, the national-cultural background of these language units necessarily includes well-known words and expressions. Dictionary structure The dictionary consists of more than 600 entries arranged in alphabetical order; An index of the names of all objects, facts, phenomena, personalities mentioned in the dictionary related to Russian history and culture (about 2000 items); Appendices: A list of all linguistically and regionally valuable phraseology given in the dictionary entries; List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites located in Russia; Samples of Russian handwritten and printed texts from the 9th to the 20th centuries; Well-known dates, holidays and memorable days. Structure of a dictionary entry A dictionary entry consists of: 1. Heading word or phrase and its interpretation; 2. Country studies (cultural) part; 3. Linguistics of the regional part. 1. The heading word is given before the entry in large capital letters. The titles of works of art are given in quotation marks. The stress is indicated in the word (phrase). For example: ARKHANGELSK CHRONICLE Woe from Wit If the described object has naming options, then the naming variant most commonly used in speech is chosen as the heading word, and in this case its stylistic characteristics and indications of the features of its use in speech are given. Other options are given alongside. For example: POTATOES (POTATOES) TRETYAKOVKA The colloquial name of the State Tretyakov Gallery. TEMPLE OF VASILIY BLESSED The unofficial name of an architectural monument. "Most of the words (phrases) included in the dictionary describe one meaning that has national and cultural value. In cases where several meanings of a word are described, each meaning is marked with Arabic numerals and is given from a paragraph. For example: CATHEDRAL 1. A meeting of the highest Christian clergy to resolve issues of dogma and church life (for example, an Ecumenical Council, a Local Council)." 2. In the XVI-XVII centuries. in Russia - a meeting of the highest ecclesiastical and secular officials or elected officials to resolve the most important issues of organizing and managing the state. 3. The main Christian temple* of a city or monastery*, where, as a rule, the highest clergy - the patriarch, metropolitans, archbishops - perform worship. In cases where the meanings of a word are homonymous, that is, they differ significantly in meaning, each of them is described in a separate article, indicated by a serial number. For example: TROYKA1 Three horses (see horse *) harnessed in a row in one carriage; carriage with three horses harnessed to it. National Russian team. HOW TO USE THE WORDS REM TROYKA2 Evaluation (mark) of a satisfactory level of knowledge of a school student *. Interpretation of the heading word For common nouns, an interpretation of the lexical meaning of the word is given, for example: ABC A set of letters accepted in Russian writing, arranged in the established order, alphabet. BIRTHDAY Date of birth of a person, which is celebrated as a household, home holiday. For proper names, an encyclopedic interpretation is given, for example: AMUR A river in the Far East*, one of the largest rivers in the world. Nakhimov P.S. An outstanding Russian naval commander, Admiral. In some of the most interesting cases, etymological information about the word is offered or its internal form is revealed. For example: COW ... In the Old Russian language, cattle was called beef. The word cow appeared in Russian and other related languages much later and comes from the Latin honeycomb - "horn". LUBYANKA... The name goes back to the 15th century. There are two versions of its origin, and both of them are connected with the noun lub and the adjective lubyanoy. Bast is the inner part of the bark, a fibrous tissue that is found under the bark of some trees: linden * and elm, as well as products made from this material. The name Lubyanka arose either because wood was traded in the area of the modern square, or because in this area at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. relocated the inhabitants of the ancient Russian cities of Veliky Novgorod * and Pskov, and the Novgorodians brought with them the name of the street of their city Lubyanitsa, which in Moscow began to be called according to the model characteristic of Moscow toponymy - Lubyanka (er. Petrovka, Polyanka, Solyanka and other Moscow names streets). AYBOLYT The hero of the fairy tale of the same name by K.I. Chukovsky. The character's name has a transparent internal form, formed from a combination of the interjection Ai! and the verb hurts. HOW TO USE REM 2 WORDS 2. The country study part is a brief encyclopedic reference containing information about the place and significance of this realia in the history and culture of Russia. Articles devoted to statesmen and public figures, figures of science and culture provide their brief biographies. All dates are given according to the new style or according to the new and old style (in parentheses). All statistical data presented correspond to the situation at the beginning of 2007. 3. The linguistic and regional part is a description of the national and cultural background of the heading word. It includes information about what associations Russians have about the reality indicated by the heading unit; what is the status of this reality in the ordinary consciousness of a native speaker; information about the polarization (if any) of the assessment of realia among different segments of the population, changes in the national-cultural background of realia, i.e. changes in the understanding of the role of this or that phenomenon and attitudes towards it in different strata of Russian society in different historical periods. For example, in the article OCTOBER REVOLIO TIA 1917:. .. Beginning with perestroika*, and especially during the construction period, after the collapse of the USSR and the elimination of the CPSU* monopoly on power, the assessment of the role and significance of the October Revolution was revised by many. Modern historical science, as well as most of the population, question the timeliness and necessity of the October Socialist Revolution of 1917, which split society, led to great loss of life, and ruled out the path of gradual political and economic reforms. Proponents of this point of view usually call the October Revolution the Bolshevik revolution. In the article THE MONGOLO-TATAR Yoke: ... In historical science there is no unambiguous assessment of the role of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in the history of Russia Many historians believe that the yoke caused enormous damage to the economic, political and cultural development of Russian lands; it became one of the main reasons for Russia's lagging behind: the Western European countries, which it protected from invasion and thereby saved the medieval European civilization.Others, on the contrary, see a positive influence in the interaction of two civilizations for the formation of Russian statehood, nation and culture.In the same part article is located and information about the most well-known facts of reflection of the reality indicated by the heading word in literature, music, fine arts. For example, the Volga article mentions Russian folk songs associated with the Volga, a poem by N.A. Nekrasov, paintings by I.E. Repin and I. I. Levitan. HOW TO USE A REM WORDS The dictionary entry ends with information about the most stable language and speech units associated with the reality indicated by the heading word - the ways of verbal expression of its national and cultural background. For example, in the article TSAR: ... The word tsar has a figurative meaning. The king (of something) is called the one who subordinates those around him to his influence or surpasses everyone in any respect: the king of the forest is an oak *, the king of birds is an eagle *, the king is a fish. Hence the names of the Tsar Bells and Tsar Cannons standing in the Moscow Kremlin* and outstanding in size and beauty. The definition royal is used in the meaning of "luxurious, magnificent", for example, a very expensive and valuable gift is called a royal gift. The word royally means "generous" (for example, to reward in a royal way) or - usually in cooking - "exquisitely" (royal ear, blit. royally). Phraseologisms are widespread: during the reign of Ibpoxe, that is, a very long time ago; without a king in his head about an eccentric, stupid, empty, imprudent person; the booby of the king of heaven is a stupid person, a simpleton, a loafer who is waiting for mercy from God (the King of Heaven). In the article POLTAVA BMTVA:. ..The lines of the poem by A.S. Guns on * "Poltava": Hurrah! We break, the Swedes bend! Nowadays, this expression is used as a joke by sports commentators of hockey matches between Russia and Sweden; And the battle broke out, the Poltava battle! they talk about a military battle, about a fight during a trial, jokingly about a sports rivalry. Introduced in the 18th century after the Battle of Poltava, the expression burned down (disappeared), as a Swede near Poltava, is used when talking about someone who has suffered an absolute defeat, a complete failure. Font highlighting in a dictionary entry Heading words of articles are in bold type, as well as (in the text of the article) linguistically valuable units that, according to the authors, carry the greatest semantic load, are some kind of key or thematic ones. REM words for this article. Words used in the text, but having their own dictionary entry, are highlighted in semi-letter type with a * sign. For example, in the article SHUBA: ... Fur coats made of beaver fur with gray hair and Siberian sable * were most valued, fox (see fox *) and squirrel (see squirrel *), hare (see hare *) were also popular ) fur coats (especially women's). Merchant coats were often made of raccoon or marten, peasant coats of sheepskin (sheep fur)... Words and expressions in the text of the article are marked in italics, which are given special attention as proper linguistic units that are directly related to the title word of the article (formed from him, including him in their composition, associated with him, etc.), as well as quotations from literary works. Bold italic (or bold italic with *) denotes words that combine the qualities of bold units and italic units. For example, in the article CAT: Not all cats have Shrovetide*. Index of the names of all objects, facts, phenomena, personalities mentioned in the dictionary, related to Russian history and culture This section of the dictionary lists about 2000 titles (among them - more than 600 units of the main body of the dictionary). In the event that a dictionary entry is devoted to a given object, fact, phenomenon, personality, the linguistically and regionally valuable vocabulary of this entry is indicated in brackets, including those units that are included in the main body of the dictionary; if a given object, fact, phenomenon, person is not dedicated to a separate dictionary entry, then the entries in which they are mentioned are indicated in brackets. For example: PETER AND PAUL FORTRESS* (Alekseevsky ravelin, Decembrists*, Winter Palace*, Narodniks*, Neva*, October Revolution of 1917 *, Nikolai 11*, St. Petersburg*, Peter 1*, Peter and Paul Cathedral*, cathedral*, church*, N.G. CONDITIONAL ABBREVIATIONS c. - century cc. - century y. - 1) year, 2) city y - gram ha - hectare yr. - women's years - feminine, etc. - and others to them. - name, etc. - and so on, etc. - and the like kg - kilogram km - kilometer l - liter m - meter min(.) - minute million - million billion - billion million. h - plural eg. - for example about. - island approx. - about pr. - other, other raeg. - colloquial r. - river, see - centimeter, see - see ep. - neuter gender i.e. - that is, a thousand - a thousand hours (.) - an hour "AURORA APPLICANT)) Anyone who enters a higher educational institution (university) is an institute. Unlike many countries where a graduate of a secondary educational institution is considered an applicant. In Russia Anyone who has a general secondary education, i.e. graduated from a secondary school*, a gymnasium* or a secondary vocational educational institution, can enter a higher educational institution. the admission committee displays the passing score - the minimum amount of marks that gives the right to enroll in a university. An applicant who receives the required number of points is considered to have passed the competition. Enrollment of applicants to the institute is carried out by order of the rector. On this day, the applicant becomes a student. Out of competition, with passing exams, orphans, disabled children and some other categories of applicants are accepted. an institution with a gold medal (see school*), are accepted to higher educational institutions based on the results of an interview and passing only one exam in their specialty. Some institutions (usually creative ones) set other additional conditions for admission. In a number of institutes, graduates of the preparatory departments who have successfully passed the final exams are accepted without entrance examinations. In a military ship, a cruiser of the Baltic Fleet, the crew of which took an active part in the October Revolution of 1917*. It was laid down in 1897, entered service in 1903, took part in hostilities during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. From 1 9 1 6 was under overhaul in Petrograd*. February 28 (March 13), 1917 sailors<�Авроры» вместе с рабочими завода, ремонтировавшими крейсер, подняли восстание. - ·Аврора на стоянке у набережной Невы АВРОРА 6 АЗБУКА Крейсер «Аврора» стал одним из симво лов Октябрьской революции 1917 г. В советский период (см. Советский Союз*) он регулярно изображался на праздничных открытках, ему посвящена песня В.Я. Шаинского на слова М.Л. Матусовского «Крейсер "Аврора"»: Дремлет притихший северный город, Низкое небо над головой, Что тебе снится, крейсер «Аврора», В час, когда утро встает над Невой? АЗБУКА П осети тели музея на палубе крейсера Авро ра Временное правительство (см. Октябрьская ревотоция 1917 г. *) хотело вывести «Аврору» из Петрограда, но судовой комитет принял реше ние не выполнять распоряжение правительства. К этому времени в числе матросов крейсера бы ло 42 большевика (см. большевик*). 25 октября (7 ноября) 1917 г. в 3 часа 30 минут ночи «Авро ра» по приказу Петроградского Военно-револю ционного комитета подошла к Николаевскому (сейчас им. лейтенанта Шмидта*) мосту и обес печила контроль над ним революционных сил. В тот же день радиостанция «Авроры» передала написанное В.И. Лениным* воззвание «К граж данам России!», а вечером одно из орудий «Ав роры» холостым выстрелом дало сигнал к штур му Зимнего дворца*. В годы Великой Patriotic Wars s * cruiser "Aurora" was in the city of Oranienbaum near Leningrad *. The crew of the cruiser took part in the defense of Leningrad. In 1948, the Aurora was permanently parked on the Neva River* at Petrogradskaya Embankment as a monument to the revolution. At the same time, the cruiser continues to serve, is a training ship of the Nakhimov Naval School (see P.S. Nakhimov*). In 1957, a branch of the Central Naval Museum was established on the cruiser. 1. The set of letters adopted in Russian writing, arranged in the prescribed manner, the alphabet. The Russian word azbuka is formed in the same way as the Greek alphabet from the names of the letters "alpha" and "vita". The first letters of the Slavic alphabet were called az A and bee B. Hence the alphabet. The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The Russian alphabet developed on the basis of Cyril Jnshchy* in the 10th-11th centuries. Many letters before the beginning of the XVIII century. also served to designate numbers: az A 1, lead in 2, verb r 3, good A 4, etc. Over the centuries, the composition of the alphabet has changed, as well as the names and spelling of letters. Reform Pet- - - - - yes Bb Vv Gg Dd Her Yoyo Yy Kk Ll Mm Nn Zhzh Zz II Oo Pp Rr Se Tt Uu Ff Xx Ts Chh Sh Shch b Yy b Ee Yuyu Yaya Modern Russian alphabet 7 AZBUKA ra 1 * 1708 -171 O rr. the letters that became redundant were eliminated (for example, yus large n. and yus small � and new ones were introduced that are more consistent with the sound structure of the Russian language (e, e, z). In the same years, the so-called civil font was introduced. In 1748, at the suggestion of the poet V.K. Later, N.M. Karamzin introduced the letter Y. However, these innovations took hold in the education system only in the middle of the 19th century. The reforms of 1917-1918 continued to improve the composition of the Russian alphabet and simplify spelling. the letters “YAT”, “I decimal”, “fita” were excluded, by that time practically duplicating “e”, “i”, “f. The modern Russian alphabet complies with the standards adopted in 1918 in terms of composition, names and spelling of letters. letter names are preserved in Russian phrases logical combinations: start from the basics, that is, from the very beginning, from the simple, from the basics; to stand with a firth to stand with one's hips, so as to look like the letter f (fert is the old name for this letter); dot the "I" (meaning the letter i, which existed in Russian before the reform of 1918 r. ) that is, to bring something to its logical end. The expression from A to Z means from "beginning to end"; proverb Having said “A”, say “B”, if something is started in words or deeds, then a continuation should follow. From childhood, many people know the riddle joke: A, I, B were sitting on the pipe, A upshu, B was gone. Who stayed on the pipe? (answer I). Here, the indistinguishability by ear of the fact that the word “And in this case is used not in the function of a union, but as the name of a letter is played up. 2. A book for the initial teaching of literacy, the same as the primer. This meaning is represented in the phraseology elementary truths, that is, the simplest, known to everyone since childhood, from the first primer. ABC - - - - ABC. 1698 handwritten book IOIOca:.u. Y r--. - - Russian alphabet or Primer. Compiled by I. and A. Borozdin. 1870 - - - ABC in pictures. U-turn. Compiled by N.V. Tulupov. 1909 SEA OF AZOV 8 SEA OF AZOV SEA OF AZOV A sea in the south of Russia. Connects with the Black Sea* Kerch Strait. The Sea of Azov is the shallowest on Earth, its maximum depth reaches 14 m, the area is 39 sq. km. In winter* it freezes for 2-3 months and the entire surface is covered with ice. Sand bars (shoals) separate many small bays from the sea. The large bays are Taganrog, Sivash, and others. The Don* and Kuban* rivers flow into the sea. In the Sea of Azov, sturgeon fish (see sturgeon*), bream, mullet, and gobies are fished for. Not far from the confluence of the Don River in the Sea of Azov is the city of Azov, which since the XV century. was part of the Ottoman Empire. The memory of the famous Sea of Azov remained in the history of Russia. This was the name of the defense of the fortress of Azov, which in 1637 was occupied by the Don Cossacks (see Cossack*). Realizing that they would not be able to resist the Turkish army* for a long time, the Cossacks in 1641 sent a request for help to Moscow* to the sovereign. In response, Tsar * Mikhail Fedorovich sent a letter * in which he thanked them for their service, but ordered them to leave Azov, fearing a big war with Turkey, for which Russia was not ready. Having obeyed the sovereign, the Cossacks left Azov in the summer of 1642. Only the famous Azov military campaigns of Peter 1 * solved this problem. The fortress was finally taken by the Russians* in 1696, and with this, an exit to the Black Sea was opened for Russia. In the 17th century An unknown author wrote "The Tale of the Azov Siege Seat of the Don Cossacks", glorifying their feat. This monument of ancient Russian literature is on a par with such works as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" * and "The Tale of Mamaev's Battle" (see. Battle of Kulikovo*). Fishing in the Sea of Azov Coast of the Sea of Azov · Capture of Azov . Copper engraving. 1695 9 IT HURTS ALEXANDER I AIBOLIT The hero of the fairy tale of the same name by K.I. Chukovsky. The character's name has a transparent internal form, formed from a combination of the interjection Ai! and the verb hurts. Aibolit is a kind doctor who is always in a hurry to help children and animals. For the first time this character appeared in Chukovsky's poetic fairy tale "Barmaley" (1925), then - in the fairy tale "Aibolit" (1929) and in 1936 - in the prose fairy tale "Doctor Aibolit" (according to Hugh Lofting) . In the minds of Russians*, these books are, first of all, fairy tales about Dr. Aibolit. Their adventure stories are entertaining and instructive. Dr. Aibolit is the embodiment of kindness, dedication and justice. He fights the bloodthirsty Barmaley, frees the boy Penta and his father from pirate captivity, saves the children Tanechka and Vanechka, and protects the sick monkey Chichi. All the rescued become his friends, and even the evil Barmaley becomes "And kinder and nicer." Based on the plots of Chukovsky's fairy tales about Dr. Aibolit, several cartoons and two feature films were shot: "Doctor Aibolit" (directed by V.V. Nemolyaev, 1938) and an eccentric musical comedy "Aibolit-66" (directed by R.A. Bykov, 1966) The name of Dr. Aibolit has become associated not only with doctors, but also with any person who is ready to help another, or a place where help is provided. It has become so popular that pharmacies, medical centers, and even a computer service are called it. Aibolit's words Do not go, children, walking in Africa has become winged. They are used to warn of any danger. ALEXAN D R I Illustration for the fairy tale Dr. Aibolit . Artist M. Solovyov Russian emperor from 1801 to 1825 Alexander Pavlovich Romanov was born in 1777 "the eldest son of Emperor Paul 1 *. He ascended the throne as a result of a palace coup and the assassination of Paul 1. At the beginning of his reign, Alexander 1 conducted a liberal policy, carried out moderately liberal reforms: established ministries, the Cabinet of Ministers and the State Council, took the first steps to liberate the peasants from serfdom (see serfdom *), issuing in 1803 the decree "0 Free Plowmen". These reforms were played by the so-called Unofficial Committee, which consisted of the closest friends of Alexander 1, as well as by the outstanding statesman ALEXANDER I of the first third of the 19th century. MM. Speransky. In the first years of the reign of Alexander 1, Derpt, Vilna, Warsaw, St. Petersburg, Kharkov and Kazan universities were opened, as well as the famous Tsarskoye Selo (Alexander) lyceum *, where A.S. Pushkin*. Domestic policy in the second half of the reign of Alexander 1 was more conservative. The right of landowners to exile serfs without trial to Siberia was restored*; in order to reduce the cost of military needs, military settlements were created in which peasants lived (see peasant *), who at the same time served in the army *. The government supervised the universities and banned political clubs. The activities of various religious and mystical, in particular, Masonic, organizations became widespread. The closest assistant to the emperor and the actual head of the state in 1815-1825. became raff A.A. Arakcheev*, and the reactionary policy pursued by him was called Arateevism. In foreign policy at the beginning of the reign, Alexander 1 occupied an indefinite position: Alexander 1. Portrait. Artist I. Vinberg. 1823 10 ALEXANDER I Congress of Vienna" Engraving by J. Godefroy after the original by J. Ieabe. 1819 in 1805-1807 Russia participated in anti-French coalitions, in 1807-1812 Russia became However, this rapprochement did not prevent a new Russian-French conflict: in 1812 the army of Napoleon Bonaparte attacked Russia, the Patriotic War of 1812 began. 1 undertook a liberation campaign in Europe, which resulted in the rise of the national liberation movement in Germany, the expulsion of the French from Prussia and the creation of a new anti-French coalition of European countries.After the collapse of the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte, Alexander 1 led the anti-French coalition of European countries.He was one of leaders of the Congress of Vienna (18 1 4 - 1 8 1 5 rr.), at which the Holy Alliance, the union of European monarchs, was created to suppress revolutionary and national liberation movements in Europe countries (18 1 5 r.). At the beginning of the XIX century. Russia also waged other wars (with Turkey, with Sweden), which strengthened its international position. In the reign of Alexander 1, Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812), Azerbaijan (1813), and the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia. ALEXANDER I In the last years of his life, Alexander I fell into extreme mysticism. He died suddenly in the city of Taganrog in 1825. The mysterious death of Alexander 1 gave rise to a legend that he was alive and was hiding in Siberia under the guise of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich. But there is no reliable documentary evidence of this legend. Known are the portraits of Alexander 1, which were painted by the artist J. Dow, the creator of the Military Gallery of the Winter Palace*. In 1834, in memory of the war of 1812, a granite column was erected on Palace Square in St. Petersburg* (architect O. Montferrand, sculptor B.I. Orlovsky), named Alexandrovskaya in honor of the emperor. The monument has another name - the Pillar of Alexandria, given by Pushkin in the poem "Monument". In honor of Alexander 1, a garden was named, laid out along the wall of the Moscow Kremlin * in 18191822, - Alexander Garden. Many poets dedicated poems to Alexander 1, but Pushkin's lines are still the most famous. In them, one can find contradictory characteristics of the personality of Emperor Alexander 1 and his era. Pushkin was the author of epigrams on Alexander I. However, the first years of the reign of the emperor, the poet called the Days of Alexander a wonderful beginning ... (“Message to the Censor”, 1822), and in the poem “October 19th” (1925) Pushkin wrote: ALEXANDER 1 1 11 AL EKSA N D R 1 1 Russian emperor from 1855 to 188 1 Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov was born in 1818, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas 1*. He ascended the throne after the death of his father. According to political views, Alexander 11 was a conservative. However, the objective conditions of the need for the socio-economic development of the country and the defeat in the Crimean War 1853-1856 rr. - made him spend in the 60s 70s rr. a series of bourgeois-democratic reforms. The abolition of serfdom (see serfdom*), the introduction of local self-government, judicial, university and military reforms contributed to the development of capitalism in Russia. The growth of revolutionary sentiment in society contributed to the transition of Alexander 11 to a reactionary domestic policy, the intensification of repressions against the revolutionary Narodnaya Volya (see Narodniks*). The immediate reason for this was the first attempt on the emperor, committed in April 1866 by D.V. Karakozov. Subsequently, several more attempts were made on Alexander 1 1. Hooray, our king! So! let's drink to the king. He is a human! they are dominated by the moment. He is a slave of rumors, doubts and passions; Let's forgive him the wrong persecution: He took Paris, he founded the Lyceum. After the victory over Napoleon, Alexander 1 began to be called Alexander the Blessed, linking the victory of Russia over Napoleon with his name. Alexander 11. Daguerreotype portrait. Mid 1860s ALEXANDER 11 ALEXANDER R 1 1 1 12 In honor of Tsar Alexander 11, the mineral alexandrite was named, which was first found in the Urals* on the day of the future emperor's coming of age (1834). AL EKSAND R 1 1 1 Church of the Resurrection of Christ (Savior on Spilled Blood) The foreign policy of Alexander 11 changed in different periods of his reign. Having ascended the throne in 1855, he tried to end the Crimean War and conclude a peace treaty with hostile powers (Paris Peace of 1856). In the 1870s, Alexander 11 occupied a pro-German position, giving an important place to the so-called "Eastern Question", i.e. struggle between Russia and Turkey for free access to the Mediterranean. March 1, 1881 in St. Petersburg * Alexander 11 was killed by the revolutionaries-Narodnaya Volya. At the place of the emperor's death in 1883-1907. The Church of the Resurrection of Christ, better known as the Savior on Spilled Blood, was built. In 1898, a monument to Alexander 11 was erected in the Moscow Kremlin * at the expense of the people (destroyed after the October Revolution of 1917 *). In 2005, in Moscow* near the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, a new monument was erected by sculptor A.I. Sleeve 1DUnikova. For the peasant reform of 1861, which freed millions of peasants from serfdom (see peasant *), Alexander 11 was popularly called the Liberator. Russian emperor from 1881 to 1895 Alexander Alexandrovich Romanov was born in 1845, the second son of Alexander 11 *. He ascended the throne after the murder of his father by the revolutionaries of the Narodnaya Volya (see Narodniks *). Alexander 111 adhered to conservative views. At the very beginning of his reign, he promulgated the Manifesto "On the inviolability of the autocracy" and tried to pursue a policy of maneuvering between liberalism and reaction. In the first half of the 80s. Alexander's government carried out a series of economic reforms that contributed to the development of capitalism. In the late 80s - early 90s. the so-called counter-reforms were carried out in relation to the liberal reforms of the 60-70s. During the reign of Alexander 1 1 1 brutally suppressed Portrait ·Alexander 1 1 1 in the imperial crown ALEXAND R 111 13 ALEXANDER NEVSKY ALEKSANDR NEVSKY Equestrian statue of Emperor Alexander 1 1 1. Sculptor Paolo Trubetskoy police, administrative arbitrariness intensified. In the field of foreign policy in the 1880s, there was a gradual deterioration of Russian-German relations and a rapprochement with France, culminating in the conclusion of the Franco-Russian alliance (1891-1893). ). In the reign of Alexander 111, the accession of Central Asia to Russia was basically completed (1885). Under Alexander 111, Russia did not participate in wars, for this the emperor was popularly called the Peacemaker. With the active participation of Alexander 111 and partly at his expense, the Russian Museum was created, which after the death of the emperor and until 1917 * was called the Russian Museum of Emperor Alexander 111. The most famous monument to Alexander 111 is the equestrian statue of the emperor, created in 1899-1906 . sculptor Paolo Trubetskoy. The monument is located in St. Petersburg* in the courtyard of the Marble Palace. Alexander 111 owns a well-known aphorism: Russia has only two allies all over the world - the Russian army and the Russian navy. Prince * of Novgorod in 1236-1251, Grand Duke of Vladimir from 1252, commander, saint of the Russian Orthodox Church. Prince Alexander Yaroslavich was born c. 1220. During his reign in Veliky Novgorod*, the lands of northeastern Russia* fell under the Moshol-Tatar yoke*, and the Swedish and German feudal lords sought to seize the northwestern lands of Russia. In relations with the Mongol-Tatar khans, Alexander Nevsky acted as a skilled politician. He sought to ease the burden of the yoke for the Russian people and prevent the capture of all Russian lands by the Mongol-Tatars. In July 1240, Prince Alexander with a small retinue * completely defeated the numerous Swedish army on the Neva River, which was striving to capture the Novgorod lands. In the battle with the Swedes, the Russian prince showed exceptional personal courage and talent as a commander. For the victory, the people nicknamed the Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky. Alexander Nevsky defeated the German crusader knights in the battle on the ice of Chudsky Alexander Nevsky. Fragment of a triptych. Artist P.D. Korin. 1942-1943 ALEXANDER NEVSKY 14 ALEKSANDR NEVSKY in Russian art of the 20th century, in particular, in the film by S.M. Eisenstein "Alexander Nevsky *. A phrase (interpretation of a saying from the Bible) uttered by Alexander Nevsky in the film has become a catchphrase: Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword. During the Great Patriotic War, in 1943, the artist P.D. Korin created the triptych “Alexander Nevsky>.>, where the image of the Russian prince-warrior symbolizes the struggle of the people for the freedom of their land. "ALEXAN DR NEVSKY 11 Entry of Alexander Nevsky to Pskov. Artist V.A. Serov. 1945 lake April 5, 1242 This battle entered the history of Russia under the name Battle on the Ice*. Alexander Nevsky died in 1263. and was buried in the monastery of the Nativity of the Virgin in Vladimir (see Golden Ring*). In 1280, The Tale of the Life and Courage of the Blessed and Grand Duke Alexander was written, and in 1547 the Russian Orthodox Church canonized Prince Alexander Nevsky as a saint. His name day* was celebrated on November 23rd. In memory of Alexander Nevsky, in 1710 Tsar Peter I* founded a male monastery* in St. Petersburg*, which became a major religious center of Russia, known since 1797 as the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. There in 1724, at the behest of Peter the Great, the relics of Alexander Nevsky were transferred. In 1725, Empress Catherine 1 established the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky, which was one of the highest awards in Russia until 1917*. During the Great Patriotic War*, in 1942, the Soviet (see Soviet Union*) Order of Alexander Nevsky was established, which was awarded to distinguished military commanders. This order remains a state award in modern Russia. In the popular mind, Alexander Nevsky is the ideal warrior prince, the defender of the Russian land from external enemies. His image is reflected Artistic historical and biographical film. Filmed in 1938 at the Mos film studio. Director - S.M. Eisenstein, composer - S.S. Prokofiev. The film stars Nikolai Cherkasov, Andrey Abrikosov, Nikolay Okhlopkov, and others. The film tells about the Russian prince* and commander Alexander Nevsky*, who in 1242 defeated the knights of the Teutonic Order on Lake Peipus (see Battle on the Ice *) not far from Velikoro Novoroda*. The role of Alexander Nevsky is played very expressively by one of the most popular actors of the 1930s and 1960s. Nikolay Cherkasov. Frame from the film. Alexander Nevsky - N. Cherkasov ALEKSANDRA FEDOROVNA 15 ALEKSANDRINKA For the creators of the film, the main theme was the patriotism of the Russian people defending their Motherland. This topic was relevant in the difficult political situation before the start of the Second World War. In 1978 the film was named one of the 100 best films of all time. It is also popular with the modern Russian audience. Prokofiev's music for the film is often performed in concerts as an independent work. A phrase (interpretation of a saying from the Bible) uttered by Alexander Nevsky in the film has become a catchphrase: Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword. ALEKSAND RA FYOD OROVNA And the name given in Orthodoxy* to two Russian empresses. one . Russian empress from 1826 to 1860 , wife of Nicholas 1*, mother of Alexander 11*. She was born in 1798 in Berlin, the daughter of the Prussian king Friedrich-Wilhelm III, before the adoption of Orthodoxy - Frederick-Louise-Charlotte-Wilhelmine. In 1817 she married the future Emperor Nicholas 1. She was the patroness of women's educational institutions in Russia since 1828 Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. Wife of Nicholas 1 1 . Portrait. Artist A.V. Makovsky. 1914 In 1832, the Alexandrinsky Theater (see Alexandrinsky *) of St. Petersburg * was named after the Empress. Died in 1860. 2. Russian Empress from 1896 to 1917, wife of Nicholas 11*. Born in 1872, daughter of the Grand Duke of Hesse and Rhine Ludwig IV, granddaughter of the English Queen Victoria, before the adoption of Orthodoxy - Alice-Victoria Helena-Louise-Beatrice of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1894 she married the future Emperor Nicholas II. She participated in solving state issues, during the First World War* she took care of military hospitals, medical trains, and together with the Grand Duchesses (see Princess *) worked in the infirmary. Shot down together with his whole family in 1918 in Yekaterinburg. After her death, she was canonized as a saint. (<АЛЕКСАН Д РЙНКА)) Разговорное название Российского государ ственного академического театра драмы имени А.С. Пушк1П1а* старейшего русского драма тического театра, названного в 1 832 г. Александ ринским в честь супруги Николая 1* Александ ры Федоровны*. Впервые труппа театра была создана в 1 756 г. указом императрицы Елизаветы Петровны* - Императрица Александра Федоровна. Супруга Николая 1 АЛЕКСАНД РИНКА 16 ·АЛ�НУШКА В 1908- 1 9 1 7 rr. главным режиссером театра был В.Э. Мейерхольд. Репертуар театра в ХХ ве ке был очень разнообразен: русская и советская драматургия, пьесы зарубежных авторов. В 1937 1 966 гг. художественным руководителем театра был режиссер и педагог Л.С. Вивьен. В театре работали выдающиеся советские актеры Нико лай Симонов, Николай Черкасов, Василий Мер курьев, Юрий Толубеев и многие другие. «Александринка» - любимый театр жителей Петербурга* и всей страны. Многие спектакли театра были удостоены Государственных пре мий, а артисты - почетных званий и государст венных наград. Александринский театр. 1820- 1830-е гг. Художник А.В. Беггров «для представления комедий и трагедий». В зна менитом здании, возведенном по проекту архи тектора К.И. Росси, театр работает с 1 832 г_ В 1919 г. театру было присвоено почетное звание академического. В 1 937 г., когда отмечалось сто летие со дня гибели Пушкина, театр получил имя великого поэта, который любил Александ ринку и часто бывал там. Почитателями искусства Александринского театра были многие деятели русской культуры: И.В. Гоголь, В.Г. Белинский, И.С. Тургенев*, А.П. Чехов*, А.А. Блок и др. В конце XVII I в. на сцене «Александринки» играл «отец русско го театра», великий актер Ф.Г. Волков; выдаю щаяся драматическая актриса Е.С. Семенова; в начале XIX в. - знаменитые водевильные акте ры В.Н. Асенкова и Н.О. Дюр - первый испол нитель роли гоголевского Хлестакова*; выдаю щийся трагик русской сцены В.А. Каратыгин. Во второй половине XIX в. - начале ХХ в. - ве ликие драматические актрисы П.А. Стрепетова., В.Ф. Комиссаржевская, «Заслуженная артист ка императорских театров» М.[ Савина. В XIX в. в Александринском театре состоя лись премьеры многих классических произве дений русской драматургии - Горя от ума * А.С. Грибоедова (1831 г.), Ревизора * И.В. Го голя (1 836 г.), Бориса Годунова * А.С. Пушки на (1870 г.), пьес А.И. Островского*, Чайки * А.П. Чехова (1896 г.). Картина В.М. Васнецова. Создана в 1 881 г., находится в Третьяковской галерее. Размеры 1 73х 1 2 1 см. На полотне изображена крестьянская (см. крестьянка*) девочка, в глубокой печали сидя щая на берегу пруда. Грустный осенний (см. осень*) пейзаж средней полосы России подчер кивает ее настроение. Картина напоминает зрителю Алёнушку героиню «Сказки про сестрицу Алёнушку и брат ца Иванушку», однако это не иллюстрация В.М. Васнецов. Автопортрет. 1873 г. АЛТАЙ 17 АЛТАЙ тайrой* из кедра. Высоко в горах располага ются альпийские луга и горные тундры (см. тундра*). Алёнушка . Художник В.М. Васнецов. 1881 г. к сказке. Тем не менее, репродукция этой попу лярной в России картины часто включается в издания русских народных сказок. Алёнушкой могут назвать грустно сидящую девушку или девочку. Возможно также выраже ние сидит как Алёнушка. АЛТА Й Горный регион в Азии, расположен на терри тории России, Казахстана, Монголии и Китая. Алтаем также неофициально называют террито рию, занимаемую Алтайским краем - одним из субъектов Российской Федерации. Алтай - одно из древнейших на планете мест обитания человека. Представляет собой систему горных хреб тов, особенно высоких в западной его части и богатых полезными ископаемыми (железная руда, золото*, ртуть, редкие металлы); высо чайшая вершина - гора Белуха (4506 м). Мно го озер. На северных и западных склонах преоб ладают горные луга и степи (см. степь*). Около трети Алтая, находящегося на российской тер ритории, занято лесами (см. лес*), в том чис ле лиственничными лесами и темнохвойной Климат Алтая континентальный, суровый, с холодной зимой* (морозы до -30° и ниже) и коротким и прохладным летом* . Из крупных животных водятся горный козел, бурый мед ведь*, волк*, а также бобер, соболь* и другие животные с ценным мехом. Много диких уток, гусей, журавлей (см. журавль*) и речной рыбы лещ, щука*, карась, осетр* и др. На берегах Телецкого озера находится Алтай ский природный заповедник. В живописнейшем уголке алтайских предгорий расположен курорт Белокуриха с его знаменитыми радоновыми ваннами. Освоение Алтая Россией проходило вместе с освоением Сибири*. Первая деревня* появи лась здесь в 1 696 году в 30 километрах от ны нешнего Барнаула. С конца XIX в. начало разви ваться сельское хозяйство - сейчас ведущая отрасль в экономике Алтая. Край славится свои ми твердыми сортами пшеницы*, дающими му ку высокого качества. В XVII I-XIX вв. Алтай был местом ссылки участников восстания под предводительством Е.И. Пугачева* , декабристов* , народников* , социалистов. Суровая и прекрасная природа Алтая вос хищала побывавших здесь путешественников Алтай. Телецкое озеро АЛТАЙ АМУР 18 национальных музеях страны. В Эрмитаже* хра нится уникальная «царица ваз� - овальная чаша из цельного монолита зелено-волнистой яшмы работы мастеров Колывани (по рисунку архи тектора К.С. Мельникова), имеющая в диаметре около 5 метров, весом более 19 тонн. С Алтаем связана судьба знаменитого рус ского писателя В.Я. Шишкова, который был также автором проекта строительства знамени того Чуйского тракта - части дороги*, в начале ХХ в. соединившей Сибирь и Монголию. Алтай - родина писателя, кинорежиссера, актера В.М. Шукшина. В селе Сростки, где про шло его детство, сейчас создан музей и ежегодно проводятся Шукшинские чтения. Колыванская ваза. Яшма. 1843 г. Эрмитаж и ученых - П.П. Семенова-Тян-Шанского, И.К. Рериха. На Алтае находится музей Н.К. Ре риха, несколько горных пиков носят имена чле нов семьи Рерихов. Алтай знаменит художника ми, работающими с камнем. Изделия алтайских мастеров служили дипломатическими дарами России. Многие из них находятся в главных Алтай. Гора Белуха АМ У Р Река на Дальнем Востоке*, одна из круп нейших рек мира. Река Амур образуется слиянием рек Шилки и Аргуни, впадает в Охотское море. Ее длина 2824 км, от истока Аргуни - 4440 км. Главные притоки: Зея, Бурея, Аргунь, Сунгари, Уссури. В верхнем течении - это быстрая горная река, в средней части Амур замедляет течение и ста новится широким и полноводным в низовьях. Зимой* Амур замерзает, весной* и летом* не редко случаются большие наводнения. Амур - важная водная магистраль Дальнего Востока. На Амуре расположены города: Бла говещенск, Хабаровск, Комсомольск-на-Амуре и др. Развито рыболовство. В водах Амура во дится рыба ценных пород: кета, горбуша, амур ский осётр*, черный и белый амур. Только в Амуре водится гигантская царица-рыба ка луга, вырастающая длиной до 6 метров и весом более тонны. По Амуру в его среднем течении проходит граница между Россией и Китаем. Первые русские* появились на берегах Аму ра в середине XVII в. Это были казаки (см. ка зак*), которые осваивали новые земли. В середине XIX в. было создано Амурское казачье войско, которое охраняло границу с Ки таем. В течение XIX-ХХ вв. Россия вела актив ное исследование и освоение этой территории. 19 АНГАРА АНГАРА Река Амур Ан гара. Братская ГЭС В 1 854 г. на Амуре было открыто Русское паро вое судоходство. С рекой связана жизнь и эконо мика приамурской земли. Широко известна песня, посвященная Аму ру - вальс «Амурские волны», написанный во енным капельмейстером М. Кюссом в 1909 г. (слова С. Попова). С этой мелодии до сих пор часто начинаются музыкальные радиопередачи для Сибири* и Дальнего Востока: На берегах Ангары расположен старинный си бирский город Иркутск*, а также города Ангарск, Братск, Усть-Илимск и др., которые дали назва ния крупным гидроэлектростанциям (ГЭС), по строенным на Ангаре в 50-70-е гг. ХХ в.: Брат ская ГЭС, Иркутская ГЭС, Усть-Илимская ГЭС. В результате этого верхнее течение реки превра тилось в водохранилище. По Ангаре ведется су доходство. В сибирском фольклоре существует легенда о красавице Ангаре, сбежавшей от отца Байкала и нелюбимого жениха Иркута к красавцу Енисею. В советском (см. Советский Союз*) искусстве образ реки часто связывался с идеей освое ния Сибири. Об Ангаре поется во многих совет ских песнях, посвященных комсомольским строй кам (см. комсомол*). Наиболее известные из них - песни А.И. Пахмутовой на слова С.Т. Гре бенникова и Н.Н. Добронравова « Прощание с Братском» и «девчонки танцуют на палубе». В одной из них Ангара предстает как поэтический образ комсомольско-молодежной романтики: Плавно Амур свои волны несет, Ветер сибирский им песни поет, Тихо шумит над Амуром тайга, Ходит пенная волна, пенная волна плещет, Величава и вольна... АНГАРА Река в Восточной Сибири* , самый много водный приток Енисея*. Ангара - единственная река, которая вытека ет из озера Байкал*. Ее протяженность 1779 км, площадь бассейна 1040 тыс. кв. км, максималь ная глубина - 4-6 м. Зимой на 5-6 месяцев Ан гара замерзает. Река богата рыбой. А река бежит, зовет куда-то, Плывут сибирские девчата Навстречу утренней заре По Ангаре, По Ангаре. АНД РЕЕВСКИЙ ФЛАГ 20 АНДРЕЕВСКИЙ ФЛАГ АН Д РЕЕВСКИЙ ФЛАГ Флаг Военно-Морского Флота Российской Федерации (см. армия*). Представляет собой белое полотнище, пересеченное по диагонали двумя синими полосами, образующими косой крест* , который называется Андреевским в честь апостола Андрея Первозванного, распятого, по христианскому преданию, на косом кресте. Святой Андрей Первозванный считается по кровителем России. В « Повести временных лет�.>(see chronicle*) it is said that the apostle reached the places where Kiev and Veliky Novgorod* were to stand in the future*, and blessed these places. Therefore, in the era of Kievan Rus (see Rus *), Andrew the First-Called was considered the patron saint of Russian statehood, and in imperial Russia he became the patron of the Russian navy. St. Andrew's flag was established in 1699 by Peter 1 *, who emphasized that the flag was chosen by him in honor of St. Andrew the First-Called "for the sake of the fact that Russia received holy baptism from this apostle.>. It is likely that the choice of Peter 1 was influenced by the flag of Scotland (blue with a white St. Andrew's cross). Saint Andrew was considered the patron saint of Scotland long before the introduction of his cult in Russia. The Scottish Order of Saint Andrew is known. Peter copied the order and, perhaps, decided to transfer the St. Andrew's flag to Russian soil, only changing its color - St. Andrew's flag Monument to St. Andrew the First-Called on the 300th anniversary of the Russian fleet. Memorial park in Kolomna. As the flag of the navy, the Andreevsky flag existed until November 1917. * In 2000, the Andreevsky flag was re-established by the law of the Russian Federation as the banner of the Navy of the Russian Federation. In the national and cultural consciousness of the Russians*, the St. Andrew's flag is considered a symbol of the Russian navy. It is mentioned in the famous folk song to the words of Ya.N. Repninsky "Cold waves are splashing.", dedicated to the death of the warships "Varangian." * and "Korean" : Battleship ·St. Paul with St. Andrew's flag ANNA KARENINA 21 ANNA KARENINA We did not lower the glorious St. Andrew's flag before the enemy! They themselves blew up the "Korean.", We sunk the "Varyag". sch \ NNA KARENIN D11 Roman L.N. Tolstoy*. Over the novel "Anna Karenina" - L.N. Tolstoy worked for 5 years from 1873 to 1877. The novel was first published in 1877. The events of the novel develop in the 70s rr. 19th century after the abolition of serfdom and the subsequent reforms of Alexander 11*. The action takes place in Moscow*, St. Petersburg*, in the Russian provinces, as well as abroad. The main character of the novel, Anna Karenina, is a young woman, the wife of a prominent St. Petersburg dignitary, belonging to high society. The work develops in parallel two storylines: the line of patriarchal-estate life (see estate *) and the line of city, metropolitan life. Tolstoy in the novel consequently pursues the idea of the moral perniciousness of the city and its culture, giving all his sympathy to the morally healthy manor-patriarchal life. Against the backdrop of life in the capital, relations between Anna Karenina and the brilliant St. Petersburg officer Count Alexei Vronsky develop. Anna's fate is tragic. Because of her love for Vronsky, Anna leaves her husband and little son, but, not having survived the burden of her own act, rejected by the people around her, she commits suicide by throwing herself under a train. The fate of the young landowner (see nobleman *) Konstantin Levin, who lives and works on the land, away from the bustle of the city, develops differently. He marries for love, his wife Kitty is the keeper of the family hearth, the mother of the family. Literary critics consider the image of Levin to be autobiographical: during the years of writing the novel, Tolstoy began to adhere to the same views and lifestyle as his hero. According to Tolstoy, in this novel he was most interested in the "family thought", the part of Anna's Date with her son. Artist M.A. Vrubel. 1880s the role of women in the family and society, as well as the role of the nobility in public life. The novel "Anna Karenina" is one of Tolstoy's most popular works. The image of Anna Karenina created by him is included in the gallery of female images beloved by many of classical Russian literature. Anna in the theater Artist O.G. Vereisky. 1975 ANNA KARENINA 22 ARAKCHEEV A.A. ARAKCHEEV A.A. Anna A scene from the ballet Anna Karenina. M. Plisetskaya, Vronsky M. Liepa - - In the twentieth century, the novel was repeatedly staged. A famous production was a 1937 performance by the Moscow Art Theater (see Moscow Art Theater *) with Alla Tarasova in the title role. The work has been repeatedly filmed not only in Russia, but also abroad. One of the best adaptations of the novel was created in 1968 by director A.G. Zarkhi. The main role in the film was played by Tatyana Samoilova. In foreign adaptations, the role of Anna was played by Greta Garbo (1937), Vivien Leigh (1948) and Sophie Marsa (1997). In the 70s. 20th century based on the novel by composer R.K. Shchedrin wrote a ballet of the same name, which was staged in Bolshoi Theater *. The choreographer of the performance and the performer of the main role was the outstanding ballerina Maya Plisetskaya. The first lines of the novel have become catchwords: All happy families are alike, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way. Everything is mixed up in the Oblonskys' house... The expression Everything is mixed up in the Oblonskys' house is used when they want to say that everything has gone beyond the usual state of things. Count, general, Russian military and statesman. Alexey Andreevich Arakcheev was born in 1769 in the village. Garusovo Novgorod (see Veliky Novgorod *) province in the family of a retired lieutenant of the Life Guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment A.A. Arakcheeva and E.A. Vetlitskaya. In 1787 he graduated from the St. Petersburg gentry artillery and engineering corps, where he began to work as a teacher. Since 1791 - in the service in the army *. With his diligence, service zeal and strictness towards his subordinates, he won the favor of Emperor Paul 1 *, who promoted his career and awarded the title of count. In 1807, under the new emperor Alexander 1 *, Arakcheev received the rank of general from artillery, in 1808-1810. was Minister of War, Inspector General of all infantry and artillery. He introduced a divisional organization in the army, improved the system of recruitment and training of personnel, streamlined the structure of command and control of troops. In 1810 he was appointed chairman of the military department of the State Council. During the Patriotic War of 1812, * he was engaged in recruiting troops, organizing their supply, and training reservists. Accompanied Alexander 1 in the foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814, had a great influence on him. From the end of 1815 Arakcheev was charged with supervising the activities of the Committee of Ministers. Until 1825, he controlled all spheres of the domestic policy of Alexander 1, which gradually became reactionary. From 1817, he was rigorously implementing a project to organize military settlements on government lands, which caused a sharply negative reaction in society. He played an important role in the reform of the Russian army, its technical re-equipment, and in the development of military education. Arakcheev was distinguished by honesty, was strict not only to others, but also to himself, refused awards and titles that he considered undeserved. After the accession of Nicholas 1 * released from the management of the affairs of the Committee ARBAT 23 ARBAT The street appeared in the XIV-XV centuries. and in the first time it is mentioned at the end of the 15th century. In the XV-XVI centuries. along the Arbat there was a road * to Smolensk *. Craftsmen lived in the neighboring lanes, hence some of the names: Plotnikov, Money, Silver. From the second half of the XVIII century. Arbat is one of the most aristocratic streets in Moscow. The street was seriously damaged by fires several times. After the fire of 1812 * Arbat was built up with one- and two-story mansions. In the second half of the XIX century. multi-storey buildings appeared on the Arbat, in which apartments were rented out, the so-called tenement houses, hotels and shops. In 1906, a restaurant called Praha was built at the beginning of the street. In the end. 19th century a horse-drawn horse-drawn carriage ran along the Arbat (see horse *), and at the beginning of the 20th century. a tram was running down the street. In the 1960s rr. next to the Arbat, a new street was laid, which today is called Novy Arbat. During the construction of this street, some Arbat lanes were destroyed. Arbat is closely connected with the history of Russian culture. After the wedding of A.S. Pushkin * and his wife rented an apartment in a house on the Arbat. Now in this building there is a museum-apartment of the poet. In 1999, a monument to A.S. Guns well and his wife N.N. Goncharova. On the Arbat is the Theater. E.B. Vakhtanova. On this one - Portrait of Count A.A. Arakcheev. Artist I.B. Lamps. End of the 15th century ministers, removed from the imperial court *. He died in 1834. Having no direct heirs, he bequeathed all his property to Nicholas 1, which he transferred to the Novgorod Cadet Corps, giving him the name A.A. Arakcheev. Contemporaries considered Arakcheev the evil genius of Alexander's reign, a symbol of reaction. A.S. called him the oppressor of all Russia. Pushkin*. Until now, the Russian language has the word aracheevshchina, which means "despotism, stick discipline and drill in the army, the brutal suppression of public discontent." ARBAT A street in the center of Moscow* between Arbat Gate Square and Smolenskaya Square. According to scientists, the name of the street comes from Arabic word rabad, which in the plural took the form of arabad, this word meant a suburb, a suburb. So called in the XV-XVII centuries. the whole area southwest and west of the Moscow Kremlin * to the modern Garden Ring, where merchants (see merchant *) and artisans lived at that time. Arbat. The house where A.S. Pushkin. Now the museum-apartment of A.S. Pushkin ARBAT 24 ARMY One of the rooms of the museum-apartment of A.S. Pushkin Arbat. Street artists lived on the street writer Andrey Bely, philosopher A.F. Losev, poet and writer B.Sh. Okudzhava*, whose songs dedicated to the Arbat made this street a symbol of old Moscow. In 2002, not far from the house where Okudzhava lived, a monument was erected to him by G. Frangulyan (architects I. Popov and V. Proshlyakov). From 1970s. Arbat became the first pedestrian zone in Moscow. There are many restaurants, shops, street artists work here, and you can buy souvenirs. Every day there are many tourists on the Arbat from different cities of Russia and from abroad. The words of B.Sh. Okudzhavs about the Arbat: Oh, Arbat, my Arbat, you are my fatherland, never completely pass you. ARMY The totality of the state's armed forces (land, sea, air). The word army (from the French armee) is borrowed from German language and became widely used in the 18th century, replacing the noun of Slavic origin voisko in the official names of the armed forces. In modern Russian, the word army is used only in the names of military units of the Cossacks (see Cossack *), and in the form - Arbat. Theatre. E.B. Vakhtangov ARMY 25 ARMY plural - in combinations, rocket troops, regular troops, etc. The history of the Russian army begins from the time of Ancient Russia (see Rus *), when the main elements of the armed forces were the princely (see prince *) squad * and the people's militia. The squad was the core of the armed forces and was at the disposal of the prince. The people's militia was convened only by decision of the veche (people's assembly) or at the call of the prince. With the change in the nature of princely power, the nature of the squad also changed: gradually, a service class, endowed with land, was formed from it. In the Russian state of the XVI - early XVIII centuries. service people made up a standing army armed with firearms. Hence the name of the army is the Streltsy army, and the name of the warriors is archers. Initially, archers were recruited from the free rural and urban population, then their service became lifelong and hereditary. At the beginning of the XVIII century. a military reform was carried out, one of a series of famous Petrine reforms (see Peter 1 *): the archery army was abolished, the creation of a regular Russian army and navy began according to the Western European model. Names were borrowed from European languages (German, French) - Moscow Streltsy military ranks corporal, general, brigadier, non-commissioned officer, chief officer, etc. The military wife of the army was cannons, grenades, rifles, pistols and swords. As a result of the reform, various military units were formed, and the "amusing" regiments of the emperor turned into guards - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, which in the next decades became the pride of the Russian army and the army training school officer cadres . Young nobles (see nobleman *) served there as privates, and then received officer chii *. It was very difficult for people from other classes to become an officer, they were required to serve “immaculately”. In the first decades of the 18th century special military educational institutions were also created. In 1705, the rut duty was introduced in Russia (from the French recru ter - to recruit). Mostly Russian peasants (see peasant *) were taken as recruits, later - only Christians. The term of service was then “before disability”, practically for life. By the end of the reign of Peter 1, the total number of Russian armed forces reached 220 thousand people. By this time, Russia had become a maritime power, the first Baltic Fleet appeared, then the Caspian Flotilla. Army ranks, just like civil ones, were enshrined in a special document of the Table of Wounds (see rank *). By the middle of the XVIII century. the size of the Russian army was 331 thousand people. The service life has been reduced to 10 years; they stopped taking the only breadwinner in the family into the army; garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children; for the wounded and sick soldiers - garrison hospitals. In addition, examinations were introduced for officers, and it was forbidden to assign officer ranks to the illiterate. More than 50 fortresses were built on the borders of the country. The Sloboda Cossack army was organized on the southern border (see Cossack*). In the 1770s. The Black Sea Fleet was built in Russia. At the end of the XVIII century. reforms in the Russian army were carried out by Emperor Paul 1*. However, they were not popular either in the military environment or in society and practically did harm. After the defeat at Austerlitz in 1805, the new emperor Alexander 1 * was - ARMY ARMY 26 Life Guards engineer battalion. 1862 was forced in many respects to return the old order to the army. The next reforms of the army took place in the 1860-1870s rr., When the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 rr. showed its insufficient technical equipment, especially in the navy. In 1874, already under Emperor Alexander 11*, a charter on military service was adopted, replacing the recruiting system of army formation. Military service was served by all men older than 21 years, regardless of class affiliation. The term of service in the army was 6 years, in the navy 7. The clergy and the indigenous population of some regions of the Caucasus *, Central Asia, and Finland were exempted from military service. There were benefits for people with higher and special education. By the end of the XIX century. Russia already had a network of secondary and higher military schools, and academies were opened. New models of weapons, battleships, and submarines appeared in the armament of the army. In the 1880s IT. the Black Sea Fleet, lost by Russia in the Crimean War, was revived; a Russian military squadron was created in the Far East*. By the beginning of the twentieth century. The Russian army numbered over a million people and was the largest army in the world. The Navy was in third place in the world, yielding to the Dragoon 38th Vladimir Regiment before the start of exercises near Mozhaisk. 1885 to English and French only. Aviation appeared. At the beginning of 1918 (after the October Revolution of 1917 *) the Russian army was demobilized, a significant part of the soldiers and officers became part of the Red Army created by the Soviet * - Parade in Moscow on Red Square on June 24, 1945. ARMY 27 ARMY but -Navy, Aviation Day and other army holidays. The highest military award of the Russian Federation is the Order of St. George (see George the Victorious*, St. George's Cross*). Many Russian writers, artists, and composers have served in the army. Among them: G.R. DerzhavlPI, K.F. Ryleev, V.A. Zhukovsky, M.Yu. Lermontov, L.I. Tolstoy*, I.K. Aivazovsky, I.A. Goncharov, I.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, K.M. Simonov, B.L. Vasiliev, B.Sh. Oku Java *, A. I. Solzhenitsyn. Military parade in Moscow on the Red Square of the Army *, a smaller part went over to the side of the White Army (see White Guard *). Soon after the end of the Great Patriotic War* (1946), the name of the Red Army was changed to the Soviet Army, it included all branches of the armed forces, except for the navy. After the collapse of the Soviet Union*, the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation became the official name of the army as the land, sea and air armed forces of Russia. The military uniform has changed somewhat (state symbols of the Russian Federation appeared on it) and appearance banners. A double-headed eagle, the central part of the State Emblem of the Russian Federation, was placed on the red banner of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, and the Andreevsky flag * was returned to the fleet. The official address to military personnel in the army is comrade (comrade officer, comrade general, comrade soldiers, comrade sailors, etc.). Starting from the last decade of the 20th century, deep reforms have been carried out in the Russian army: military personnel of units of constant combat readiness are transferred to service under the contract; since 2007, the term military service on conscription reduced from two to one and a half years. The main army holiday is the Day of Defenders of the Fatherland*. In addition, there is Military Day. The theme of defending the Fatherland has always been popular in Russian culture. The works of the Russian heroic epic sang the exploits of the rich rey (see the warrior *), the ancient Russian literature - the princes and the princely army (see the Word about Irorev's regiment *). In the XVIII century. the odes of M.V. were dedicated to the victories of the Russian army. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin. A.S. Pushkin glorified the Battle of Poltava in 1709. The theme of the Patriotic War of 1812. for many years became one of the main themes of Russian fine arts and literature of the 19th century. (works by I.A. Krylov, V.V. VereshchG1P1a, M.Yu. Lermontov, O.I. Chaikovsky, “Sevastopol stories” and War and Peace by L.N. Tolstoy). In memory of the victory over Napoleon, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was built (architect K.A. Ton). The history of the Russian and Soviet army in the 20th century was reflected in the work of A.I. Tolstoy (Walking through the torments *), M.A. Bulrakov ("White Guard", "Running"), M.A. Sholokhova (Quiet Don *), I.E. Babe la (“Cavalry”), A.A. Fadeeva ("Rout"), K.M. Simonov (“The Living and the Dead”, “We Are Not Born Soldiers”), etc. The history of the Russian army was reflected in the canvases of famous artists of the 19th and 20th centuries. V.V. Vereshchagin, I.K. Aivazovsky, F.A. Rubo, I.M. PRYANIUP1IKOVA, A.D. Kivshenko, P.D. Ko r1P1a, A.A. Deineka. The army theme is the main one in the work of the Studio of Military Artists named after M.B. Grekov. Army marches and songs are widely known and loved in Russia. Many of them: the old soldier's song "Nightingale, nightingale, little bird" (see nightingale *), the song of Varyar V.D. Benevsky to the words of the German poet R. Greinz (translated into Russian - E. Studenskaya), march Farewell ARKHANGELSK 28 ARKHANGELSK Slav women V.I. Arapkin, songs of the Civil and Great Patriotic Wars, “Song of the Soviet Army” (“They make noise over you like a banner ...”) A.V. Alexandrov to the words of O.Ya. Kolycheva and others are included in the repertoire of the Song and Dance Ensemble Russian Army them. A.V. Alexan firewood. There is a genre of army anecdote, the heroes of which are witty and resourceful soldiers and insufficiently educated or stupid junior officers, sergeants, and foremen. For example: The foreman approaches a soldier who is standing aimlessly along the fence. - What are you doing? The soldier replies with irony: "I'm thinking about how to combine time and space." - Then I'll help you. Take a shovel and dig a ditch from the fence until lunchtime. Alexander's 111* words about the Russian army have become catchwords: Russia has only two allies in the world - the Russian army and the Russian navy; about the Soviet Army: Unbreakable and legendary (from A.V. Aleksandrov's Song about the Soviet Army to the words of O.Ya. Kolychev). ARHA NGELSK City by the White Sea* on the banks of the river. Northern Dvina. Founded in 1584 as a wooden fortress by decree of Ivan the Terrible* on the right bank of the Northern Dvina next to the Archangel Michael Monastery*. The original names were New City, New Kholmogory City, Novo Kholmogory, from 1613 - Arkhangelsk City, then - Arkhangelsk. The inhabitants of the city are called Arkhangelsk citizens (from the name Arkhangelsk city). The history and modernity of Arkhangelsk are closely connected with the sea. Arkhangelsk is the first major seaport of the Russian state, from the 16th-11th century. - main shopping center Russian North*. The city played an important role in the development of the Arctic and the Northern Sea Route. In 1932 from here on the icebreaker “A. Sibiryakov" went on a voyage scientific expedition - Arkhangelsk. Krasnaya stanitsa, which for the first time traversed the Northern Sea Route from the White Sea to Beringovo in one navigation. Modern Arkhangelsk is the largest shipbuilding center. The city also has a developed wood processing and wood chemical industry. The Plesetsk cosmodrome is located in the Arkhangelsk region. The environs of Arkhangelsk are rich in numerous monuments of wooden architecture - the village of Malye Karely. Museum-Reserve of Wooden Architecture GULAG ARCHIPELAGO Exposition of the Museum of Wooden Architecture. Life of the Arkhangelsk-Pomors tours. Near the villages of Bolshie and Malye Karely, the Arkhangelsk Museum of Wooden Architecture was created, where monuments of the 16th - early 20th centuries are collected. from various regions of the Russian North. The village of Kholmogory has been located 75 km from Arkhangelsk since the 17th century. center of art craft of Kholmogory bone carving. Near the village of Kholmogory in the village of Mishaninskaya (now the village of Lomonosov), the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov*, who is sometimes referred to as I.A. Nekrasova is an Arkhangelsk peasant. ,.d RH I P ELAG GULAG ”And the historical epic of A.I. Solzhenitsyn. The title of the book includes the abbreviation GULAG*, that is, the Main Directorate of Camps of the State Security System of the USSR. The camps included in this system were scattered throughout the country like islands forming an archipelago. This gave Solzhenitsyn the basis for creating a metaphorical title for the work. Created during the 60s and 70s, the epic novel is a continuation of the author's research into the history of Russia in the 20th century. In December 1973 The first volume of The Archipelago was published in Paris in Russian. In the USSR, this work was banned by censorship for many years and was published only in 1988. The Gulag Archipelago, in many respects an autobiographical work by Solzhenitsyn, tells about the Soviet era that existed in the 1920s-1950s. 20th century system of political repressions and camps for political prisoners. The "Archipelago" traces the path that the convicts "for treason against the Motherland" passed from arrest to the end of their term of imprisonment or life. Separate chapters of the work are devoted to the infamous camps on the Solovetsky Islands *, in Ekibastuz (on the territory of modern Kazakhstan), etc. The novel-study "The Gulag Archipelago" is diverse in terms of issues, material, and styles of presentation. It combines historical investigation, sociological analysis, investigation materials, testimonies, an abundance of figures and statistical calculations, lyrical digressions and comments by the author. The narrative includes the memories and testimonies of many eyewitnesses of the events, letters and memoirs of 227 camp inmates. Solzhenitsyn himself called his book an experience of artistic research. The author is interested in many problems connected with the political history of Russia and the USSR. The writer's attention is also drawn to the policy of the Communist Party (see CPSU *), which has acquired a monopoly on power and truth. This monopoly extended to the fate of individual leaders of the party itself and the leaders of the party - A.I. Solzhenitsyn ARSHIN ASTRAKHAN 30 lei of the country, which in many respects became the victims of their own political decisions. Solzhenitsyn was one of the first to depart from the official assessment of the causes of the first defeats of the Soviet Army in 1941 * at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War *. In the novel, Solzhenitsyn poses many moral problems, thinking about the nature of evil beyond time and boundaries, about the inadmissibility of achieving even the most humane goal by inhuman means, about the collective guilt of the whole people before itself. The writer argues that the Gulag could have appeared as a phenomenon of uniting victims and executioners through the fault of all those who were silent and obeyed when it was necessary to protest. The author urges the reader to "live not by LIE". Solzhenitsyn's book The Gulag Archipelago became one of the most famous works of Russian literature of the 20th century. Excerpts from rom-na-epopee included in school programs on literature. The title of the book came to be used in speech to refer to any system of political camps. ARSHYN An old Russian measure of length, used before the introduction of the metric system of measures (1918), equal to 71.12 cm. As a unit of measure, the arshine was widely used in the textile industry and in trade, displacing the cubit from there (a measure of length equal to about 50 cm), as well as in weapons. In 1899, the “Regulations on Weights and Measures” legalized the arshin as one of the main units of measurement, and the length of the arshin was expressed both through English measures (28 inches) and through metric ones. A ruler was also called an arshine, a bar approximately 7 1.1 2 cm long, which was used in the trade to measure fabrics. Each merchant*, taking into account the approximate nature of this measure, tried to use his arshins, substituting them depending on whether he bought goods or sold them. Hence the figurative meaning of the expression to measure by one's own arshin (to judge something from selfish considerations is one-sided, subjective). This meaning of the word in the modern Russian language was also preserved in the phraseological unit as (as if, as if) arshin prozlotsh (about a person who holds himself unnaturally straight and constrained). F.I. Tyutchev used a transformed phraseological phrase with the word arshin in the famous poem of 1866: Russia cannot be understood with the mind, cannot be measured with a common yardstick. She has a special become. One can only believe in Russia. A STRAKHAN City in the Volga Delta*. The oldest city in the Lower Volga region, a river and sea port of the Volga-Caspian (see Caspian Sea*) basin. The inhabitants of the city are called Astrakhans. The first written information about Astrakh does not date back to the 13th century, when among the Tatar Astrakhan Kremlin ASTRAKHAN 31 ATAMAN of the surrounding area is traditionally engaged in fishing, gardening, and horticulture. Astrakhan smoked fish, caviar* are famous; Astrakhan tomatoes and Astrakhan watermelons are considered among the most delicious. ATAMAN Astrakhan tomatoes of settlements on the right bank of the Volga, 12 km from modern Astrakhan, the village of Ashtarkhan (Adzhitarkhan, Khazitarkhan, Zystrakhan, etc.) is mentioned. From one of these names the modern name of the city was derived. In 1459-1556. Astrakhan is the main city of the Astrakhan Khanate, annexed in 1556 to the Russian state by Ivan the Terrible*. The foundation of modern Astrakhan was laid with the construction in 1558. a new fortress on a high hill washed by the Volga and its arms. By the middle of the XVII century. Astrakhan became one of the border fortresses of the Russian state, guarding the mouth of the Volga. In the first quarter of the 17th century a strong navy was created in Astrakhan, shipyards and a port were built. The old Astrakhan Kremlin* (1580-1620) with white stone walls, cathedrals (see cathedral*) and other buildings of the 16th century has been preserved in the city. Famous Russians were born on Astrakhan land - the artist B.M. Kustodiev and poet V.V. Khlebnikov. Since 1918, a picture gallery has been operating in the city.