The political system of society ege. Social Science: The Political System of Society
Consider the main definitions of politics that are used by social scientists:
- participation in state affairs;
- historians understand by politics the types, intentions, goals and mode of action of the rulers, their associates, it is rather the art of ruling;
- politics is the science of public administration (V.I. Dal). A politician, according to Dahl, is a smart and dexterous, not always honest statesman who knows how to tilt things in his favor, by the way to say and keep silent in time;
- politics is an art, a doctrine of public administration, and also the activity of those who manage or want to manage the affairs of society (Larousse French Encyclopedic Dictionary);
- politics - the art of government, a certain direction of action of the state, parties, institutions.
In the political science dictionary, politics is understood as a special kind of activity associated with the participation of social groups, political parties, movements, individuals in the affairs of society and the state.
rod political activity is an activity related to the implementation, retention, opposition to power. Political activity covers several areas: public administration, the impact of political parties and movements on the course of social processes, political decision-making, political participation. The political sphere is closely connected with other public spheres. Any phenomenon: economic, social, and cultural - can be politically tinged, associated with an impact on power.
Political activity- This is an activity in the sphere of political, power relations. Political relations, in turn, is the relationship between the subjects of the political system on the issues of gaining, exercising, and retaining power. In theory and practice, political activity is often associated with coercion and violence. The legitimacy of the use of violence is often determined by the extreme nature and rigidity of the course of the political process. As a result of political activity, the interaction of the institutions of the political system, the implementation of political decisions and attitudes, the political process is formed and develops.
Political activity can be active and passive, spontaneous and purposeful, an important part of political activity is political leadership, including the following links:
- development and justification of the goals and objectives of society, social group;
- determination of methods, forms, means, resources of political activity;
- selection and placement of personnel.
Directions of state activity to satisfy the overall public interests can be called policy directions. There is an internal policy, which is focused on resolving domestic tasks - maintaining order, ensuring the development of the country, the well-being of its citizens. There is a foreign policy, it includes the resolution of interstate contradictions, its task is to defend the interests of the state on the world stage. Allocate in modern world and international politics. This is not just a state activity, but rather a supranational one. The United Nations Organization, the Council of Europe and other similar organizations participate in it.
We can also talk about different types of policies in relation to areas of public life that need to be regulated by the state in the person of its bodies. For example, those actions that are aimed at resolving economic issues can be called economic policy. It occupies an extremely important place in the entire system of state affairs. How fast will the industry develop? Agriculture, transport, services, how much we can buy with our wages, whether we can sell and buy land, what taxes to pay - all these are questions of economic policy. Turn on the TV when the program “Vremya” or “Today” is on, and you will hear that the State Duma discussed and adopted (or did not accept) in the first reading the new Tax Code of the country, amended the draft budget submitted by the government for the next year, discussed articles of the Land Code of the Russian Federation, introduced a bill on the subsistence minimum, and so on.
The object of economic policy is each of us, no matter who we are. If we study or work at school, then we cannot but be concerned about the problems of state financing of public education. If we are students, we are concerned about the timely payment of scholarships, guaranteed employment in our chosen profession after graduation. If we are women, we are interested in ensuring that there is no discrimination in hiring, determining the size wages, promotion. After all, it's no secret that it is women who prefer to be fired in the first place. Elderly people are concerned about the timeliness of payment of pensions and their size. To solve all these problems and is called upon economic policy states.
Questions about the content of school courses, new teaching aids, programs includes a special educational policy. It depends on it which faculties, institutes, departments to open, which subjects to study in the first place. An urgent problem for Russia is school reform. Various variants of it are being developed, there are disputes about the fate of public and private educational institutions about teaching various subjects. As you can see, here we also encounter a clash of interests, and the task of the state is to find agreement between them for the benefit of the young generation of Russians.
National movements represent a serious problem in the modern world. Many peoples who previously lived within the borders of united states - empires, are now awakening to an independent state life, trying to build their own "national apartments". This process can take extremely painful forms, up to war, terrorism, violence. An example of this is the collapse of Yugoslavia, the problem of Transnistria, Nagorno-Karabakh, Chechnya. Every day we learn about the facts of hostage-taking on the border with Chechnya, about the alarming situation throughout the North Caucasus. Issues related to the solution of these problems, with the coexistence and cohabitation on the same land of several different peoples, is called upon to solve national policy.
The state should also take care of the normal increase in the number of its citizens. It must know how many of them it can provide a decent life, feed, shoe, warm. If a country is experiencing a decline in the birth rate and an increase in mortality, the bar of average life expectancy is falling lower and lower, these are symptoms of a crisis. The state should develop a special system of measures to support motherhood and childhood, redistribute funds to support young families. The gene pool of the nation is the key to the prosperity and power of the state, its future. It is intended to address these issues population policy. It can be aimed not only at stimulating the birth rate, population growth, improving the quality of life of the elderly. There are countries in which the main problem, on the contrary, is too high a birth rate - these are Kenya, Somalia, Venezuela, the demographic situation in China is traditionally acute. In this case, the state is forced to adopt special laws that limit the number of children in families.
It is possible to select in an independent area and environmental policy- activities of the state to protect the environment from the destructive impact of people. This includes the maintenance of environmentally friendly industries, and tough sanctions against those who pollute water bodies, the air, barbarously manage the land, and cut down forests. But it is necessary not only to protect, it is necessary to carry out expensive research, to create new, resource-saving technologies. All these are tasks of the state.
There are many other areas of state activity.
We can talk about politics in the field of culture, science, the fight against organized crime. There are many politicians, and at the same time it is one and represents in its entirety an activity aimed at exercising power, at achieving society's goals and objectives, at ensuring a higher standard of living, social harmony and stable development than before.
Politic system - a set of various political institutions, socio-political communities, forms of interaction and relationships between them.
Functions of the political system:
- determination of goals, objectives and ways of development of society;
- organization of the company's activities;
- distribution of spiritual and material resources;
- reconciliation of different political interests;
- promotion of various norms of behavior;
- bringing people to political life;
- control over the implementation of decisions and compliance with regulations.
The main elements of the political system:
- Institutional subsystem- political organizations: parties and socio-political movements (trade unions, religious and cooperative organizations, interest clubs), the state is allocated in a special structure.
- Communication subsystem- a set of relations and forms of interaction between classes, social groups, nations and individuals.
- Regulatory subsystem- norms and traditions that determine and regulate the political life of society: legal norms (constitutions and laws are written norms), ethical and moral norms (unwritten ideas about good and evil, truth and justice).
- Cultural and ideological subsystem- a set of political ideas, views, ideas and feelings that are different in their content; 2 levels - theoretical (political ideology: views, slogans, ideas, concepts, theories) and practical (political psychology: feelings, emotions, moods, prejudices, traditions).
- Functional subsystem covers the forms and directions of political activity, methods of exercising power.
Classification of political systems:
- depending on the source of power and dominance in power-society-individual relations: democratic and non-democratic (authoritarian and totalitarian);
- open (competitiveness) - closed (appointment);
- military - civil - theocratic;
- dictatorial (reliance on violence) - liberal (freedom of the individual and society);
Democratic systems are built on the principles of individualism, humanity (human is the main value), responsibility, equality, competitiveness, social justice, initiative, sovereignty of the people, plurality of opinions, tolerance, freedom, presumption of innocence, criticality, gradual transformations; and undemocratic - collectivism, caste, political passivity, the system of subordination, the indoctrination of citizens (indoctrination), state guardianship (protectionism), the use of any means to achieve the goals, utopianism (blind faith in certain ideals), radicalism, violence.
In addition, depending on the source of power, one can speak of open and closed political systems. open systems characterized by free competition, the availability of opportunities for everyone to realize their desire to participate in political life. Moreover, this openness should extend to all spheres of life - when filling any position, a competition is announced and the most qualified specialist is selected according to previously known criteria. On the contrary, in closed systems everything is decided on the basis of acquaintances, family ties, bribes, personal preferences. Professionalism in this case fades into the background, and if competitions are held for filling positions, then this is done formally with advance notice. known results. Thus, we can speak of two types of governments. In the first case, the government can be disposed of without bloodshed, primarily through elections. In this case, the transfer of power from one group to another is not accompanied by a complete destruction of political institutions and social traditions. The second type assumes that the government can only leave in the event of a coup, a successful uprising, a conspiracy, a civil war, etc.
Very close to the considered classifications and the rest. Thus, some divide all political systems into military, civil, and theocratic. In this case, the main criterion is the dominant position in the state of one of the three groups with significant authority and power. In the modern world, most countries have civilian power, but there are still states dominated by the military (primarily in Africa and South America) or religious figures (Asian and some African countries). There is also a division into dictatorial (reliance on violence) and liberal (protection of personal freedom) systems.
The most important task of political science as a science is to study the functioning of the political system and its constituent institutions. Political science uses various research methods:
- institutional: the study of political institutions: the state, its bodies, parties, the media;
- system: involving consideration of the political life of society in the form of a complex system of institutions, norms, relationships, traditions, ideas, a system of self-organizing and self-regulating; also, a systematic approach allows taking into account the relationship and interaction with other areas of public life;
- comparative: aimed at comparative analysis different political systems among themselves, which gives grounds for making various forecasts;
- historical: involves the consideration of political phenomena in development from the past to the present, the identification of phenomena and processes that repeat in history;
- sociological: with its help, the relationship between politics and the development of society as a whole is revealed;
- normative value: involving the identification of the significance for society of certain political phenomena, their role in improving social welfare, in bringing society closer to a certain ideal.
The political system of society- a complex, ramified set of various political institutions (organizations), norms, ideologies, values and communications.
Components (subsystems) of the political system of society
Name | Characteristic |
Institutional (organizational) | a set of organizations and citizens interacting in the process of realizing their interests: the state, local governments, socio-political organizations |
Normative | political norms - rules of conduct, expectations and standards that regulate the political behavior of subjects: political and legal norms, traditions and customs, moral norms, corporate norms (charters of parties, associations) |
Cultural | political ideology - a form of political consciousness that affects the content of power relations; political culture - a way of activity in politics, reflecting the level of political activity and maturity of subjects |
Communicative | a system of vertical and horizontal relations in politics between subsystems of the political system, spheres of public life, political systems different countries, media involvement |
Functional | The main activities of political institutions in the implementation of their goals, objectives, the exercise of state power |
Liberalism- individualism, individual freedom, inalienability of rights and freedoms, private property, the state - "night watchman".
Conservatism- traditionalism, stability, the priority of society and the state over the individual, the main values are family, church, morality.
Fascism- justification of the aggressive actions of the authorities in the name of the good of the nation, the purity of the race, the unlimited will of the state, militarism, ultra-reactionary inhumane ideology.
The main ideologies of modernity
social democracy- achieving a socially just society through reforms, a democratic state pursues an active social policy, the idea of social partnership.Communism- communist society is built on the basis of public property; class struggle is the driving force of society, the principle of one-party system, universal labor service.
Political regime- a set of means, methods and techniques for exercising power and achieving political goals.
Democratic political regime | Authoritarian political regime | Totalitarian political regime |
1) recognition of the people as the only source of sovereignty; | 1) the concentration of real power in the hands of a political leader or political group, the possibility of penetration into which is strictly limited; | 1) a one-party system, the dominance of a single mass party, the leader of which is also the leader of the state; |
2) guarantees of civil, political, socio-economic rights of the individual, recognition of their natural and inalienable; 3) the formation of government bodies through free elections on the principles of universal, equal and secret suffrage; 4) creation of conditions for the activities of parties, respect by the majority for the opinion and interests of the minority; 5) implementation of the principle of separation of powers; 6) diversity and equality of forms of ownership, market economy; 7) a developed system of local governments; 8) the right of the minority to oppose while submitting to the decisions of the majority |
2) the exercise of political power by administrative-command methods with the use of coercion or the threat of force; 3) the resolution of a certain ideological and political diversity, the boundaries of which are strictly defined, a real political struggle for power is not allowed; 4) restriction and regulation of political and personal rights of citizens; 5) restriction of media freedom; 6) relatively independent of the state are: the economy, production, everyday life, public organizations |
2) the only permitted mandatory ideology; 3) the monopoly of the party and the state on the mass media; 4) an extensive system of political police, total control over all spheres of public life; 5) the centralized nature of economic management |
The communicative component of the political system includes
1) ideological principles
2) forms of interaction between parties
3) political norms
4) political organizations
Explanation.
Answer: 2
Forms of interaction, communication, communication within the political system characterize its
1) normative component
2) communicative component
3) cultural component
4) organizational component
Explanation.
Communicative - a hint, this is precisely the interaction and connection of something.
The correct answer is number 2.
Answer: 2
Subject area: Politics. Politic system
The state, political parties, socio-political movements form
Explanation.
All terms are components of the political system, institutions.
The correct answer is number 4.
Answer: 4
Subject area: Politics. Politic system
Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko
Elements of the political system:
1. organizational (state, political parties, social and political movements, pressure groups)
2. normative (norms, values, customs, traditions)
3. cultural (political culture - knowledge, value orientations, political psychology, methods of practical political activity + ideology)
4. communicative (communications within the political system)
Political consciousness, political ideology form
1) the normative component of the political system
2) the communicative component of the political system
3) the cultural component of the political system
4) organizational component of the political system
Explanation.
All this forms the political CULTURE of the citizen.
Answer: 3
Subject area: Politics. Politic system
What is an element of the cultural subsystem of a political system?
1) legal and political norms
2) the established interactions of social groups
3) state, political parties
4) political ideologies
Explanation.
Political culture is a set of views, ideas, ideas about the political system.
The correct answer is number 4.
Answer: 4
Subject area: Politics. Politic system
Political ideology refers to
1) political institutions
2) political norms
3) political culture
4) political connections
Explanation.
Political ideology - 1) a system of ideas and views that expresses the fundamental interests, worldview, ideals of any subject of politics (class, nation, whole society, social movement, parties); 2) expressed mainly in a theoretical, more or less ordered form, a system of ideas and views that protect collective values and interests, formulate the goals of group activity and justify the ways and means of their implementation with 5) the help of political power or influence on it; 3) theoretical substantiation of the system of values of certain subjects of politics.
The correct answer is number 3.
Answer: 3
Subject area: Politics. Politic system
The communicative component of the political system includes
1) political parties and movements
2) relations between civil institutions and state bodies
3) political ideas and doctrines
4) ways of political participation of citizens
Explanation.
Political communication is the process of transferring political information, thanks to which it circulates from one part of the political system to another and between the political system and the social system. L. Pai also includes in political communication "the whole range of informal communication processes in society that have the most diverse impact on politics" .
The correct answer is number 2.
Answer: 2
Subject area: Politics. Politic system
The political system includes several subsystems. The communicative subsystem includes(s):
1) values and emotions that determine the political behavior of citizens
3) political parties and state bodies
Explanation.
The political system is a multifunctional mechanism that includes state and non-state social institutions that carry out political functions.
−institutional;
− normative;
− functional;
−communicative;
− cultural and ideological.
The communicative subsystem is a set of connections and interactions between the subsystems of the political system, between the political system and other subsystems. In this case, it is the interaction of civil organizations with state bodies.
Values and emotions that determine the political behavior of citizens - a cultural and ideological subsystem
Legislation on the election of senior officials is normative.
Political parties and state bodies - institutional.
The correct answer is numbered: 4.
Answer: 4
Subject area: Politics. Politic system
The political system includes several subsystems. The cultural subsystem includes (are):
1) behavioral standards specific to political activity
2) legislation on the election of senior officials
3) TV channels and other mass media
4) interaction of civil organizations with state bodies
Explanation.
The political system - a multifunctional mechanism that includes state and non-state social institutions that carry out political functions.
Components (subsystems of the political system)
−institutional
−normative
− functional
−communicative
−cultural
Cultural covers political psychology, political ideology, political culture. Here, these are behavioral standards characteristic of political activity.
The author of the article is a professional tutor Elena Viktorovna Kaluzhskaya
This article is about concepts encountered in questions USE in social studies: Politics, power, political system.
The term " politics" comes from the ancient Greek word polis - "city-state", first introduced into scientific circulation ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle.
Politics is the relationship between large groups of people within society, as well as between societies, which are aimed at establishing, maintaining and redistributing power.
Concept " power" expresses such a phenomenon of social life, with which all political processes are connected. However, power can exist in the form of the power of parents, the boss, the leader of an informal group, and so on. For the sphere of politics, the concept is applied "political power".
Let's give definitions:
Power- social relations, the distinguishing feature of which is the ability of one individual or group of individuals to influence other individuals or groups of individuals, changing their behavior in accordance with their goals.
Political power- the right, ability and opportunity to defend certain political views, attitudes and goals.
The sphere of politics has its own structure, expressed in the concept "politic system".
System- this is a set of elements interconnected in such a way that they represent together an object, a phenomenon that performs a function. Anything can be cited as an example: a pen, a notebook, a person, morality ... A notebook, for example, is a collection of sheets in a cage or in a ruler and a cover, fastened together. A notebook is used to record educational material. Morality is a set of norms that determine human behavior. What does it represent politic system?
The political system is a set of norms, public institutions and organizations that together represent the political self-organization of society.
In the political system, there are five structural components (elements), which are called subsystems:
1. Institutional subsystem: states, parties, socio-political movements and other political institutions.
2. Regulatory subsystem: political principles, legal norms governing political life, political traditions and moral norms.
3. Functional subsystem: forms and directions of political activity, methods of exercising power.
4. Communication subsystem: a set of connections and interactions, both between the subsystems of the political system, and between the political system and other subsystems of society, between the political systems of different countries.
5. Cultural and ideological subsystem: political psychology and ideology, political culture, including political teachings, values, ideals, patterns of behavior that affect the political activities of people.
The political system of society
The concept of a political system.
Political regime.
Civil society and the rule of law.
Political parties.
Elections and electoral systems.
The concept of political system
The complexity and diversity of modern society makes it necessary to consider it as a "big system". Analyzing society from these positions, we can conditionally divide it into four relatively independent subsystems: economic, political, social, spiritual. Each of them performs certain functions, contributing to the development of human society.
What is the place and role of the political system in this process?
In its most general form, the political system can be represented as a social mechanism through which power is exercised.
AT modern conditions There is a strong consensus among social scientists that politic system is an interconnected integral complex of political organization, as well as political relations, political consciousness and culture, political and legal norms arising in the process of its functioning, through which political leadership and management of all processes of society development are carried out.
So let's consider main structural components of the political system.
Further consideration of the political system requires its classification on a number of grounds.
According to Marxist approach, political systems are classified depending on the socio-economic formation. Political systems stand out here slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist types.
If the classification is based on form of government, then allocate two main types:
Depending on the party system prevailing in a particular country, one can distinguish:
The classification of political systems depending on the political culture and mentality of the population that has formed in the country has become widespread. With this approach, it is customary to single out the following types political systems.
Political systems of the Anglo-American type. They are characterized by increased attention to the problem individual freedom personality and ensuring human rights. Relations between public authorities and citizens are built on the basis of a consensus reached in society and are mutually beneficial. The power itself is divided into legislative, executive and judicial and exercises its powers under the control of civil society.
Continental European political systems. They are in many ways similar to the Anglo-American systems, but to a greater extent than they gravitate toward conservatism, they carefully preserve and observe political traditions and historically established forms of political activity. The most indicative, in this sense, are the political systems of France, Germany and Italy.
Political systems of pre-industrial and partially industrial type. They predominate in third world countries and are characterized by an authoritarian nature of power, high level violence and neglect of human rights by the authorities.
Political systems of a totalitarian type. They can take place in countries with different levels of development. The main thing that unites them is the nature of power. As a rule, it is concentrated in the hands of one subject of political activity, as a rule, a political party. This subject subjugates the entire society by establishing complete control over the state apparatus (the principle of separation of powers turns into a pure formality), subordinating the media to itself and the subsequent nationalization of all public life.
Summing up the consideration of the essence of political systems, I would like to note that they realize their purpose in the course of their functioning, that is, the performance of the functions assigned to this system. The following question will be devoted to this issue.
Political regime
Further consideration of political systems brings us to an understanding of the need for a definition of a concept that allows us to classify them according to functional indicator. Such a concept is a political regime.
Political regime- this is a way of functioning of the political system of society, which determines the nature of political life in the country, reflecting the level of political freedom and the attitude of authorities to legal framework their activities.
Establishing one or the other political regime in a particular country depends on a number of factors.
Level of development and intensity of socio-political processes.
The structure of the ruling elite.
The state of relations between the elite, bureaucracy (official apparatus) and citizens.
The development of socio-political traditions, the dominant political consciousness and behavior in society.
The political regime is designed to provide:
1) the stability of political power;
2) the controllability of citizens, the dynamics and direction of political relations acceptable to the authorities;
3) the achievement of policy goals, the realization of the interests of the ruling elite.
It is necessary to highlight three major political regimes that exist in the modern world.
II. Authoritarian regime occupies an intermediate position between totalitarian and democratic regimes. It differs from the first by a much greater degree of freedom granted to citizens. From the second - the nature of power not limited by laws.
The essence of authoritarianism can be defined as the unlimited power of the subject, which does not allow political opposition, but preserves the autonomy of the individual and society in other areas of life and activity. The basic principle of an authoritarian regime: "Everything is allowed except politics".
the presence of a clearly developed unified ideology is not mandatory;
there is no comprehensive state control over non-political spheres of public life;
the state allows independence and even initiative in the economic and social spheres, does not interfere in the private life of citizens;
force in relation to the population of one's own country is used in the most extreme cases.
However, it should be borne in mind that the issues of own security occupy a priority place in the activities of authoritarian power. In the event of the emergence and even more manifestation of dissatisfaction with the actions of the authorities, a significant restriction of the rights and freedoms of citizens immediately follows, a tightening of the political course, if necessary, then the use of force.
Summing up the consideration of authoritarianism, it should be noted that this regime is one of the most widespread in the history of mankind, it can manifest itself in various forms (monarchy, republic, military junta, etc.). In modern conditions, authoritarianism is most often found in regions of political instability ( , and Latin America). Often it is a kind of transitional stage on the way to totalitarianism (for example, F. Castro's regime in Cuba) or democracy (, South Korea,).
III. Democratic regime based on the recognition of the people as a source of power, on their right to participate in the decision of state and public affairs, on endowing citizens with a fairly wide range of rights and freedoms.
It must be recognized that an ideal democratic regime does not exist in any of the states of the world. However, an analysis of the political life of those countries that are closest to the ideal allows us to formulate a number of common, unifying features.
Recognition of the people as a source of power and granting them the right to form representative bodies through universal, equal and direct elections by secret ballot.
Implementation in practice of the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, the existence of a system of "checks and balances" in relations between them.
A real multi-party system, the presence in the party system of political parties, both standing on the basis of the existing system, and denying it, but operating within the framework of the Constitution.
Making political decisions by the majority of the population while respecting the interests and rights of the minority.
The basic principle of a democratic regime: "Everything is allowed except what is forbidden". However, it is not enough to proclaim this or that regime democratic. It is known that even Nazi Germany in her propaganda she called the III Reich a democratic constitutional state. Need mechanisms that guarantee the functioning of the system in a democratic regime. These are:
1) creation of a system of control by civil society over the activities of state bodies and apparatus;
2) the elimination of privileges associated with the possession of power;
3) the availability of opportunities for timely and complete political informing of citizens;
4) the guaranteed right of every person to criticize the authorities and any of its representatives.
What is the state, and what is the history of its emergence and development? There is no consensus among social scientists on this issue. An analysis of existing views allows us to highlight six basic concepts of the origin of the state.
Summarizing various views on the origin and essence of the state, we can conclude that state- this is central institute power in society, organizing, directing and controlling the joint activities and relations of people, social groups, classes and associations.
Required signs of the state:
1) the presence of the territory to which the jurisdiction of this state extends;
2) the people inhabiting the given territory and recognizing state power;
3) a system of institutions that implement the functions of state power;
4) the existence of a system of law.
Turning to consideration state structures, it should be remembered that the allocation and classification of structural components depends on the approaches that underlie the solution of this issue. The most common is the unification of state bodies in accordance with the principle of separation of powers. This allows you to highlight:
bodies of legislative (representative) power;
executive agencies;
judicial authorities.
Main purpose legislatures is the creation of a legal framework and the exercise of civilian control over the government. The legislative bodies include: parliament (in Russia - the Federal Assembly, in - Congress, etc.), elected for a certain period; similar bodies in the subjects of the federation (for example - legislative assembly region or state) and local government (city or village councils).
executive branch, as a rule, is carried out by the government, which can have various names (council of ministers, cabinet, administration), and is headed by a chairman, prime minister, chancellor (and in some cases directly by the president). The government has all the administrative power in the country. He is in charge of the current work on the management of the state and citizens through a system of ministries and departments. The government is formed by the parliament (under the conditions of a parliamentary republic) or by the president (presidential republic) in agreement with the parliament.
The third branch of government is represented judicial system. Its functions include the administration of justice, as well as monitoring compliance with laws, protecting the rights of citizens from violations by the legislative and executive authorities, and bringing legislation into line with the Basic Law (Constitution) of the state.
Features of the functioning of the state, the presence of one or another political regime depends on how effective the system of "checks and balances" between the branches of government is, whether domination of one of them over the others is allowed.
Turning to consideration state functions, it should be recalled that it is in the process of their implementation that the essence of this political institution is manifested. Depending on the direction, the functions are divided into internal and external.
internal functions.
political function which consists in ensuring the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country, maintaining political stability by regulating relations between political parties and public organizations regarding the formation of state structures and the exercise of power by them.
legal function is in close unity with the political, and includes the formation of a system of laws and legal norms that regulate social relations and the behavior of citizens.
economic function is aimed at creating favorable conditions for the stable, progressive development of the country's economy. It manifests itself in the development and implementation of tax policy, the allocation of loans, the use of economic sanctions, incentives in the development of the sectoral economy, a direct impact on transport, energy, etc.
social function the state includes meeting the needs of people in work, housing, maintaining health, the implementation of social protection for the elderly, the disabled, youth, the unemployed, life insurance, health, property.
Cultural and educational and educational function aimed at creating conditions for meeting the cultural needs of people, the formation of high spirituality, citizenship, high-quality preparation of young people for active work.
managerial function consists in the direct execution of power, the implementation of programmatic political provisions in everyday practice.
external functions.
Ensuring national security.
Protection of state interests in the international arena.
Participation in the decision global problems modernity.
Typology of modern states, their division into groups largely depends on the approach underlying the classification. For a long time, the main criterion for the division of states among domestic social scientists was considered socio-economic, class type of state. With this approach, one can distinguish:
slaveholding;
feudal;
capitalist;
socialist states.
The division of states has become widespread in social science. by form of government to monarchies and republics.
This is a state in which all power is concentrated in the hands of one person - the monarch. He receives power, as a rule, in the order of succession to the throne.
In the course of a long historical development, monarchies have undergone significant changes, and in modern conditions they can be divided into several groups.
The first group consists absolute monarchies, which are the most classic representatives of this variety of states. Under absolute monarchy, there is no real separation of powers. Bodies of representative power, if they exist, are advisory in nature. The decisions they make are presented to the monarch in the form of a request-wishes to be taken into account in his legislative and executive activities. The judicial system is also subordinate to the ruler. The result is a lack of democratic freedoms, numerous violations of human rights. By the beginning of the 21st century, there were few states with an absolute monarchical form of government. Today these are:,, a number of other states of Asia and Africa.
In conditions constitutional monarchy the rights and powers of the monarch are significantly limited and strictly regulated by the country's constitution. The monarch is rather a purely symbolic figure, endowed with only ceremonial powers. At the same time, according to tradition, the monarch enjoys great respect, is surrounded by honor and is regarded as a symbol of the nation.
Constitutional monarchies exist in a number of developed countries of the world, such as,,,. It is noteworthy that the monarchical form of government did not prevent the establishment and successful development of democratic regimes in these countries.
The third type of monarchical state is dualistic monarchy. It represents a transitional form from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, or even to a republic. In such a state, there are legislative (representative) authorities. However, the monarch still retains extensive powers in the system of executive structures.
Republican form of government represents an alternative to monarchy: translated from Latin"republic" means "common cause" or "government of the people".
In modern conditions, there are two types of this form of government:
1) a parliamentary republic;
2) a presidential republic.
Parliamentary republic characterized by a special role of parliament in political life. Elected for a fixed term (in accordance with the Constitution), he concentrates in his hands all the fullness of state power in the country. It is the parliament that forms the government from its ranks, and subsequently controls it, including, it can dismiss it. If necessary, the parliament elects the president, endowing him with the functions of the head of state. However, the power of the president in a parliamentary republic is symbolic (or can serve as an example).
hallmark presidential republic is the combination in the hands of the president of the functions of head of state and executive power. The order of formation of legislative and executive authorities, independent of each other, can also be attributed to the number of specific features: the president and parliament are elected separately on the basis of universal, direct or indirect law. The government is appointed by the president and is accountable only to him. Activity in the government is incompatible with being in parliament as a deputy. It is impossible not to note the well-established mechanism of "checks and balances", which balances the powers of the three branches of government.
A classic example The presidential republic is the United States of America.
Summing up the consideration of states with a monarchical or republican form of government, it should be noted that as they develop, a clear line between them begins to blur: on the one hand, in a number of republics ( , ), the president is for life and even retains the right to inherit this post. In contrast, the monarchs of individual states ( , ) are elected.
Another basis for the division of modern states is the way national-territorial structure. It allows you to divide states into unitary, federations and confederations.
Unitary states characterized by the division of the entire territory of the country into legally equal administrative units. Throughout the country there is a single constitution and a strictly centralized system of government. The Russian Empire was a unitary state until 1917. Today, a number of other states are such.
Unitary tendencies were dominant during the period of the creation of nation-states. However, in modern conditions, the desire of regions for greater independence and even independence is noted, which gives new impetus the process of federalization of states.
It is a voluntary association of several state formations into a new state based on a constitution. It should be taken into account that the subjects (components) remain independent, may have their own constitutions and legislation, a system of representative, executive and judicial authorities. However, the federal constitution and laws have an undoubted priority over the laws of the subjects of the federation, and decisions federal bodies obligatory for the below. The question naturally arises: what makes independent states to unite among themselves, to voluntarily recognize the power of the federation?
The fact is that the purpose of the association is to jointly resolve a number of key issues for society. As a rule, these include: the defense of the country, the fight against crime, the creation of a unified financial system, transport network and communications, a common fuel and energy complex. It is these issues that are under the jurisdiction of the federal government, and the federal budget and special bodies are formed to solve them. The remaining issues remain under the jurisdiction of the subjects and are resolved on their own.
It is a union of two or more states concluded on the basis of an agreement. Unlike a federation, a confederation is not a state: it does not have its own constitution, its own power structures. Joint bodies, if they are created, are for the purpose of coordination, not management. As a rule, confederations are short-lived and gradually transform into federations or, on the contrary, disintegrate.
A striking example of a confederate entity in modern conditions is Commonwealth of Independent States created after the breakup. A union of states of the United Europe can also be called a confederation, which is increasingly showing a tendency towards federalization. There are a number of other, similar formations.
Summing up, it should be recalled once again that the form of government and the method of government do not have a direct impact on the specifics of political processes in a particular country, the establishment of a specific political regime in it. One can cite many examples of the successful development of democracy in monarchical states and, on the contrary, the establishment of the most severe totalitarian regimes in the republics.
Civil society and the rule of law
An important trend in the development of modern society is the interconnected process of the formation and functioning of civil society and the rule of law.
Considering the concept "civil society", it should be noted that today in social science two approaches have been formed to determine its essence and content.
Proponents of the first position consider civil society in a broad sense, identifying it with society as a whole, and implying by it a certain qualitative stage in the development of human society. We are talking about a democratic alternative to totalitarianism and authoritarianism, any manifestation of dictatorship. In this society, a person should become not just a subject of the sovereign, a silent object of control, but turn into a central figure in public life - a citizen. Satisfaction of his personal needs, ensuring individual freedom and respect civil rights These are the values that determine the functioning and development of civil society. This position has a limited number of supporters.
Supporters of the second position, who make up the majority among social scientists, consider civil society in a narrow sense, understanding it as a certain part of human society - the sphere of non-state relations, structures and institutions. In this case, civil society acts as an intermediary between the individual and the state, performing the function of connecting society and harmonizing private and general interests.
But, undoubtedly, the basic concept in the category of "civil society" is personality. Without the individual there can be no civil society. In this regard, civil society is directly related to values such as individual freedom of the individual, opportunities for its self-realization, satisfaction of needs and interests, as well as rule of law, equality, private property and social contract between subjects of social relations.
However, it should be borne in mind that the role of civil society in meeting the needs and interests of people is not direct. Civil society only creates the conditions for the self-realization of the individual through the provision and subsequent provision of its individual freedom. In the future, each person, depending on his abilities and desires, through vigorous activity himself creates his own well-being.
In this regard, the concept of "individual freedom" should not be confused with "permissiveness". Even at the dawn of the New Age, outstanding thinkers formulated the principle that underlies this issue to this day: “Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you.” That is, a person is free to the extent that his behavior does not cause harm to others. This provision entails the recognition of the need to establish mutual responsibility between the individual, society and the state, to determine the limits of permissible activities and obligations towards each other. Fixing these issues in the "social contract" between the subjects of social relations actually marks the transition from the initial state of "war of all against all" to a new stage in the development of civilization.
In this way, making a social contract between people about the basics of living together is the first condition for ensuring the individual freedom of the individual.
The second condition is the presence private property. It is private property, that is, the ability of a subject to own, use and directly dispose of property, that is the basis for the formation of a multi-structural economy. The latter, in turn, acts, on the one hand, as a means for a developed economy and the subsequent provision of a decent standard of living for people, and on the other, as the basis for individual freedom of the individual.
The third condition ensuring individual freedom is legalization and real observance of universal human rights. The solution of this issue is carried out by the institutions of civil society in close unity with the state authorities. This approach follows from the dual nature of the personality itself, which combines the qualities of both a simple person and a citizen. Therefore, and individual rights are divided into human rights(for life, freedom, the pursuit of happiness, etc.) and a citizen (for participation in political life). Infringement of these rights, their restriction can result both from the side of the state and subjects of civil society. Accordingly, the mechanism for the realization of individual rights should include the use of the state’s capabilities as a guarantor of compliance by all subjects with the “rules of the game” established by the “social contract”, as well as the potential possibility of counteracting the guarantor himself if he goes beyond his powers. In this case, we are talking about legal equality, which provides for the same starting and subsequent opportunities for all to realize their abilities in entrepreneurial, labor and consumer activities, as well as in politics. Any attempt to limit the possibilities of self-realization of the individual in each of the listed areas of activity is already a violation of his rights.
In this way, the essence of civil society must be considered the process of creating conditions for the self-realization of the individual and the satisfaction of her interests and needs, by ensuring individual freedom.
What subjects form the basis of civil society?
As noted above, the central, basic category of civil society is the individual. It acts in two interrelated planes: on the one hand, it is the goal for which civil society is created, on the other, it is the subject of this society, contributing to the achievement of the main goal.
Given the fact that civil society permeates the entire human society, it is advisable to group the rest of the subjects according to the spheres of public life.
In the economic sphere civil society entities include cooperatives, partnerships and societies, other types of enterprises provided for by law, business associations and other voluntary associations of citizens, which together constitute the non-state sector of the economy.
In the social sphere the subjects of civil society are families, public organizations and movements, local governments, etc.
In the spiritual realm there are church organizations and independent mass media. Also, the subjects of civil society are voluntary associations of citizens, formed on the basis of scientific, cultural, sports interests, etc.
In the political sphere The subjects of civil society are political parties and movements, socio-political organizations, leaders' support groups and lobbies (pressure groups).
Considering the diversity of subjects of civil society, it is natural to assume that within the framework of the latter there are a large number of relatively autonomous systems formed on the basis of religious, ethnic, class and other group interests. However, with all their diversity, they all must somehow be consistent with each other. Such a peculiar, pivotal concept, generalizing the value orientations of various subjects of civil society, is civic culture. Being formed on the basis of public consent, it integrates the historical experience, traditions and norms that regulate the civil process, orients individuals towards maintaining law and order, fulfilling their civic duties.
The main functions of civil society are the following.
Self-regulation function. A civil society is capable only if it manages to work out mechanisms to ensure stability and maintain its own stability.
Function of social integration. It implies the ability to independently, without state intervention, regulate the spontaneous activity of subjects, achieve streamlining of their relations by harmonizing interests, goals and attitudes.
The function of self-development of subjects of civil society. Since an individual most fully realizes his rights in conditions of individual freedom and civil self-consciousness, this gives a new impetus to the development of social, political, economic subjects, of which the individual is a member.
It seems undoubted that civil society and the state are inextricably linked and cannot exist without each other. If a prerequisite for the formation of civil society is the achievement of agreement between all individuals on the basic issues of living together and the consolidation of this agreement within the framework of a social contract, then it should be recognized that one of the results of concluding a social contract is the legitimacy of state entities. It is the state that is assigned the role of a guarantor of compliance with the terms of the contract by all interested parties, an arbiter in case of disputes. No less important is the conclusion that the institutions of private property and law also cannot function without state regulation.
Consequently, the state of modern civil society must correspond to a democratic constitutional state. In social science, the rule of law is understood as historical type state, which is characterized by a number of features.
Law supremacy. The law here is mandatory not only for ordinary citizens, but also for the legislators themselves, as well as public authorities in general. At the same time, in a rule of law state, legislation is based on reliance on natural human rights. That is, each new law adopted in order to create conditions for the most complete realization of natural human rights (rights to life, liberty, ownership of property, movement, etc.). This is the key to the viability of the law, its approval and strict observance by citizens.
Thus, the rule of law in the presence of a democratic system of formation legislative framework allows the rule of law state to successfully perform one of the functions entrusted to it by civil society - the function of creating common "rules of the game" for all.
A sign of the rule of law is the implementation in practice division of state power into legislative, executive and judicial branches, the creation of a system of "checks and balances" between them. In this case, the rule of law will be able to successfully perform the function delegated to it by civil society itself - the function of an arbitrator in the event of disputes between the subjects of social life. In the system of state bodies, the last objective arbiter of disputes between citizens, organizations, and sometimes entire branches of government is independent judiciary.
It can be concluded that, ideally, relations between civil society and the rule of law can be of an optimal, mutually beneficial nature, in which the state effectively implements the functions assigned to it by citizens, under the systematic control of civil society actors. In turn, civil society creates conditions for the self-realization of individuals, while obeying the requirements of state bodies, which follow from the powers assigned to them.
Of course, the optimal balance between the state and civil society is not achieved immediately, but is the result of a long joint development. The state, which initially is not legal, by joint actions creates the conditions for both the gradual formation and development of civil society, and for its own evolution towards democracy. Civil society, in turn, as it develops, assumes part of the state functions, becomes stronger and also gradually begins to influence the authorities, thereby contributing to their evolution towards democracy. In this way, the rule of law must comply with the democratic structure of the political system, in which the entire system of relations "power-society-citizen" is built and operates on the basis of the principles, values and norms of law.
Political parties and movements
Unlike the state, political parties are a relatively young component of the political organization of society.
The formation of modern parties took place during the period of development of bourgeois relations in Europe. This process was associated with the development of parliamentarism and representative democracy in Europe and at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. Political parties acquired their modern look only at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. But already in the middle of the XIX century. the first mass political parties arose, which firmly took their place among the subjects of the political process. It was during this period (1856-1858) that the national committees of the Republican and Democratic parties of the USA, the General German Workers' Union (1863) and a number of other parties were formed.
So what is a political party?
Political Party- this is a voluntary union of ideologically and organizationally interconnected citizens striving to achieve common goals through the struggle for power and its subsequent implementation and expressing the interests of a certain part of the population.
There are four criteria by which the definition of a political party is carried out, distinguishing it from other participants in the political process.
main goal activity of a political party is the conquest of power. This is the main difference between parties and socio-political organizations, pressure groups, etc.
longevity of the organization. As a rule, a political party is created to implement long-term programs, and not to conduct one-time campaigns.
Presence of a widely branched party structure, which includes not only central governing bodies, but also a wide network of local organizations.
The constant search for support from the people, the desire to expand their social base.
Structurally, political parties include three components:
1) governing body system, which brings together political leaders and activists, representatives of the party in state structures, etc.;
2) official party organization consisting of the party apparatus (party bureaucracy) and rank-and-file members of the party;
3) party supporters who identify themselves with her and systematically support her in elections.
Political parties, in comparison with socio-political movements, are the only purely political organizations in the political system that always fight for power and have a developed ideology. In this regard, we note that socio-political movement- this is a certain community of large groups of people uniting on the basis of common social, economic, political and spiritual interests and goals, and not leading a direct struggle for power. Movements are united on the basis of one common idea (rather than a detailed ideology): the national liberation movement, the separatist movement, the women's movement, the youth movement, the movement of veterans, etc.
It is necessary to highlight functions of a political party.
The first and main function of the party, arising from its very essence, is struggle for power and its subsequent use.
The implementation of the first function is preceded by identification, formulation and justification of the interests of certain social groups of the population on which this party relies.
Identified and studied interests are the basis for development of party ideology, propaganda and the formation of public opinion.
The function of the party is also integration and revitalization of the population, its political education.
A special place among the functions of the party occupies training and promotion of personnel for the party and state structures in which they will represent the interests of the party.
The multiplicity and diversity of modern political parties brings us to the need for classification, identification of unifying and distinguishing features.
By what criteria are parties classified?
For a long time, the main basis for division was class and ideological affiliation. In accordance with this, in domestic social science, bourgeois, petty-bourgeois and proletarian parties were distinguished. However, the complication of the social structure of society, the development of the middle stratum, led to the erosion of the electoral base and cast doubt on the validity of this approach to the implementation of the classification.
Widespread in today's environment typology of parties on organizational grounds, dividing them into personnel and mass.
Personnel parties, as a rule, are few in composition. However, all members are active and very influential in politics, they are parliamentarians, hold government posts, and have great ties with industrialists and financiers. They achieve success in elections due to the vast number of their supporters, which can exceed the number of party members by tens or even hundreds of times.
Mass parties are characterized by their abundance. They arose on the wave of the labor movement in connection with the spread of universal suffrage. Distinguished by their high ideologization, the mass parties strive to constantly expand their ranks at the expense of representatives of the lower strata of the population. As a rule, these are parties of communist, socialist and social democratic orientation.
Next batch classification criterion is their internal organization. Here it is necessary to highlight the parties:
1) with a fixed membership;
2) with free membership.
The first group consists of parties whose members receive party tickets, pay dues, and carry out the tasks of the party organization. It should be borne in mind that party membership can be direct or indirect. Direct Membership implies individual admission to the ranks of the party organization. indirect allows the collective participation of members of any public organization in the work of party bodies. An example is the collective membership of trade unions in Great Britain, Sweden and Norway in the labor parties of these countries (Labor in Great Britain and social democratic in the Scandinavian countries).
The second group includes parties that do not have official membership, and the number of their supporters is determined by the number of votes cast for them in the elections. These are the Republican and Democratic Party United States, the Conservative Party of Great Britain and a number of others.
A fairly common criterion for dividing political parties is their ideological orientation.
This approach can highlight:
1) social democratic and socialist parties(SDRP of Sweden, Labor Party of Great Britain, etc.);
2) communist parties(Communist Party of China, Communist Party of the Russian Federation, etc.);
3) liberal parties(Liberal Democratic Party of Japan, Right Cause, etc.);
4) conservative parties(Conservative Party of Great Britain);
5) clerical or confessional parties(numerous parties of Christian or Islamic orientation);
6) monarchist parties;
7) nationalist parties;
8) fascist and neo-fascist parties.
Naturally, this classification is very arbitrary, since it allows certain fluctuations in the ideological orientation of individual parties. For example, the Democratic and Republican parties of the United States, depending on the political situation, took liberal or conservative positions.
communist party Russian Federation in some positions it is more social-democratic than communist. And this list of examples can be continued.
According to the classification according to the degree of participation in the exercise of political power, political parties are divided into ruling and opposition.
In relation to the means to achieve political goals parties are divided into revolutionary and reformist.
The leading typology in modern social science is the typology of political parties according to the state of party system. Depending on the number of political parties functioning in a particular country, one-party, two-party and multi-party systems are distinguished.
One-party system implies the dominance of one party in the political arena, which actually seized the state apparatus and dictates its will to it. At the same time, the dominant role of the party can be enshrined in law (for example, the CPSU in the political system).
Two party system arises in conditions of high polarization of society and provides for the presence of two large parties, each of which has approximately equal chances in the struggle for power. This pattern can be observed in a number of European countries and in the United States. However, there are also certain differences between them. In the US, both dominant parties represent the interests of big business. They differ only in orientation to its modifications. In European countries, the polarization is around the representatives of "labor and capital". As a rule, one party expresses the interests of the wealthy part of the population (the Conservatives in the UK, the CDU / CSU bloc in Germany, the Christian Democrats in Italy). The other party defends the interests of the left forces (Labour - in the UK, the SPD - in Germany, etc.).
In conditions multi-party system none of the parties has the overwhelming support of the population and can not claim monopoly power. As a rule, this takes place in parliamentary republics, where parties are forced to unite in coalitions to form a government. Very often this entails instability, lack of political stability.
According to the Russian Federal law "On political parties", a political party is defined as a public association created for the purpose of participation of citizens of the Russian Federation in the political life of society through the formation and expression of their political will, participation in public and political actions, in elections and referendums, as well as in order to represent the interests of citizens in government bodies and local authorities. This law regulates the following provisions.
A political party must have regional associations in more than half of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, while only one regional branch of a political party can be created in a constituent entity of the Russian Federation.
A political party must have at least fifty thousand members of a political party, while in more than half of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation a political party must have regional branches of at least five hundred members of a political party. In other regional branches, the number of each of them cannot be less than two hundred and fifty members of a political party.
In accordance with the Federal Law "On Political Parties", the main objectives of a political party are:
formation of public opinion;
political education and upbringing of citizens;
expression of opinions of citizens on any issues of public life, bringing these opinions to the attention of the general public and public authorities;
nomination of candidates (lists of candidates) in the elections of the President of the Russian Federation, deputies State Duma, to the legislative (representative) bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, elected officials and to representative bodies municipalities;
participation in the work of elected bodies of state power and bodies of municipalities.
At the same time, the Law prohibits the creation and activities of political parties whose goals and actions are aimed at carrying out extremist activities. It is not allowed to create political parties on the grounds of professional, racial, national or religious affiliation. In addition, the Law "On Political Parties" prohibits the activities of political parties in state authorities and local self-government bodies (with the exception of legislative (representative) bodies of state power and representative bodies of municipalities), in the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, in law enforcement and other state bodies, in government organizations.
expression and realization of the interests and needs of various social in society;
creation of a system of popular representation (representative system of the state);
legitimization of authorities;
stabilization of the political system;
legitimate reproduction of the political elite;
civil control over government bodies and political elites;
political socialization of the individual.
Elections to government bodies are divided into levels and branches of government.
The levels are:
federal (elections to the State Duma, elections of the President of the Russian Federation);
regional (elections of territorial, regional dumas);
local (elections to municipal representative bodies of power, to the city duma).
By branches of government stand out:
elections in legislative (representative) authorities(parliaments, State Duma, Congress, etc.);
executive authorities(president, governors; prefects);
judicial authorities(election of judges in the United States).
The legal norms on which democratic elections are based are suffrage. It defines the principles and conditions for participation in the formation of electoral bodies, the organization and procedure for the elections themselves, as well as the procedure for recalling elected officials. Suffrage, in turn, is divided into objective and subjective. referred here:
principle of universality- providing to all without exception capable citizens the right to active (as a voter) and passive (as a candidate) participation in elections. In Russia, all citizens who have reached the age of 18 enjoy active suffrage, and passive (when choosing deputies of the State Duma) - citizens who have reached 21 years of age on election day.
principle of equality- the right to equal opportunities for voters and candidates in the electoral process.
adversarial principle- elections must be alternative;
principle of immediacy of elections- i.e. there should be only direct elections by voters of candidates for government bodies, without the institution of electors (intermediaries);
publicity principle- provides for public control over the elections, the possibility of the presence of independent public, foreign, etc. observers at polling stations;
principle of freedom of choice- realizes the voluntariness of participation in elections, the inability to exert pressure, to force participation in elections;
term limit principle- assumes the impossibility of canceling and postponing elections, if this is not provided for by legal norms.
AT modern societies, as universal suffrage spread, various electoral systems arose, various systems counting of votes and distribution of seats in government bodies (parliaments). In this connection electoral systems it was used in the election of deputies of the State Duma until the adoption of new electoral legislation in 2005. Under the system of relative majority for political parties, the most important task is to win as much as possible in more constituencies, at least with a minimal margin in each. the winner of the election must receive a statutory majority of the votes of the electorate, for example - 2/3, 3/4, etc. The qualified majority system is rarely used.
In general, under the majoritarian system, the big political parties are favored. As a rule, it is combined with a two-party system.
proportional electoral system- this is a way of determining the results of elections and the distribution of deputy seats in representative (legislative) bodies of power, based on the principle of proportionality between the number of votes cast for the party and the number of deputy mandates received by it. In this case, the voter votes for the list of the political party they trust. To obtain deputy mandates, it is necessary to collect the minimum (in %) of votes allotted by law.
Depending on the level of voting, the proportional electoral system is divided into nationwide, and within multi-member constituency. In the first case, constituencies are not allocated, and voters vote for a party list throughout the country. In the second case, voters vote for district-wide party representatives, with seats allocated based on the influence and credibility of the political party in the district.
With a proportional system, the possibility of representation of small parties in parliament increases. As a rule, the proportional system is combined with a stable multi-party system of the country.
Mixed electoral system combines features of both majoritarian and proportional systems. That is, some of the seats are won by the majoritarian electoral system, and the other part - by proportional (for example, 50 / 50%). In Russia, a mixed electoral system for elections to the State Duma was used in the 1990s and early 2000s: 225 deputies were elected on the basis of a majoritarian electoral system in single-member districts, and 225 - on the basis of proportional representation in a federal electoral district. But adopted in 2005 was new the federal law"On the election of deputies of the State Duma Federal Assembly RF", changed the order of elections to the lower house of parliament.
According to the law, deputies of the State Duma must be elected on the basis of a proportional electoral system for a federal constituency in proportion to the number of votes cast for federal lists of candidates for deputies State Duma. After amendments to the Constitution of the Russian Federation made in 2009, deputies of the State Duma are elected for a period of 5 years.
Elections of deputies of the State Duma are appointed by the President of the Russian Federation, and this decision must be adopted by the President no earlier than 110 days and no later than 90 days before voting day.
According to the law, the right to nominate candidates for deputies of the State Duma belongs only to political parties in the federal lists of candidates. The nomination of the federal list of candidates at the congress of a political party is carried out no earlier than 10 days and ends no later than 30 days from the date of the official publication of the decision to call the election of deputies of the State Duma.
In accordance with the law "On Elections of Deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation", it is prohibited to conduct election campaigning for state authorities, local governments, persons holding state or elected municipal positions, state and municipal employees, military units and military institutions and organizations, charitable and religious organizations, election commissions, international organizations and international social movements.
General results elections are established by the Central Election Commission (CEC) of the Russian Federation no later than two weeks later and are published within three weeks from the voting day.
By Law "On Elections of the President of the Russian Federation" Elections of the President of the Russian Federation are held according to the majoritarian electoral system. An absolute majority system operates in the first round of voting, and a relative majority system in the second round. At the same time, the second round may not be held if the candidate in the first round received more than 50% of the valid votes of Russian voters. According to the 2009 amendments to the Constitution, the President of the Russian Federation is elected for a six-year term.
Test questions.
Expand the essence and structure of the political system of society.
What is the essence of the political regime, and what is it intended to provide?
Conduct a comparative analysis of totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic political regimes.
List the characteristics of a state.
Expand the internal and external functions of the state.
How can modern states be classified according to the form of government?
What is the difference between unitary and federal states?
What is the essence of civil society and what are its character traits?
What are the functions of civil society?
What is meant by the rule of law, and how is its relationship with civil society built?
What distinguishes a political party from other participants in the political process?
What party systems do you know?
What are the main functions of elections to political authorities?
What is the difference between a majoritarian electoral system and a proportional one?
1. What is the structure of the political life of society?
The structure of the political system.
The set of functions of the political system is directly related to its constituent elements. Depending on the functions and roles performed, the following elements can be distinguished:
1. The political community of people, including large social groups - carrying the social components of the system, the ruling elites, a group of civil servants, various sections of the electoral corps, the military, etc., in a word, all those who are in power, strive for it, show only political activity or alienated from politics and power.
2. The totality of political institutions and organizations that make up the structure of the system: the state, all levels of government from the highest authorities to local ones, political parties, socio-political and non-political organizations pursuing political goals (associations of entrepreneurs, interest groups, and others).
3. Normative subsystem: political, legal and moral norms, traditions, customs and other regulators of political behavior and activities.
4. Functional subsystem: methods of political activity.
5. Political culture and communicative subsystem (media).
The elements of the political system include all institutions of social life, groups of people, norms, values, functions, roles, means by which political power is exercised and the social life of people is managed. The system includes political structures and a community of people with their own way of political life, the style of political activity.
2. List the main types of power. On the concrete examples show their relationship.
There are several main types of power - political, economic, military, informational and ideological.
Economic power is control over material and financial resources.
Military power provides control over the military-technical and human resources needed to ensure the internal and external security of the country.
Information and ideological power is associated with control over the flow of information, influence on the processes of formation of ideas and beliefs of people.
The exercise of political power requires the concentration of resources needed to manage society in the hands of certain people or groups of people united in political institutions: the state, political parties, etc. Political power also includes the use of economic, military, information and ideological means necessary for achieving political goals. It is clear that in a world where opposing social interests collide and sharp conflicts with the use of military force are not uncommon, political power must also be based on military force. However, it alone is not enough for an effective policy. You also need power over economic resources and over people's minds. This does not mean that the entire economy or the spiritual life of society is absorbed by politics. A lot of them proceed according to their own laws. Moreover, the economic, social and spiritual life of society has a huge feedback on politics.
4. What is the main feature of political power?
The main feature of political power lies in the rule, i.e. the binding nature of its decisions for any other power. Political power can limit the influence of powerful corporations, the media, and other institutions, or even eliminate them altogether. In this, its monocentricity is also manifested, i.e. the presence of a single decision-making center. Unlike political power, economic, social, spiritual and informational power is polycentric, since in a democratic market society there are many independent owners, media, social funds, etc. Political power, and especially the state, uses not only coercion, but also economic, social, cultural and informational resources.
5. Describe the role of the political system in the life of society.
The political system of society plays a special role in public life due to the fact that political decisions and laws adopted by the state are generally binding. The political system is the only one of all social systems that has the legal right to punish, to enforce the decisions made.
6. Between whom are political relations formed in society?
In society, political relations are formed between the objects and subjects of politics. The subjects include the state and its institutions, political elites, leaders, political parties. To objects - an individual, a social group, a mass, a class, etc.
7. Illustrate with examples the main functions of the political system of society.
1. Goal-setting function - determination of goals, ways of social development; organization of the company's activities to fulfill the goals of economic and social development.
2. The function of integration is the unification of society to solve the most important problems; coordination of interests of the state and social communities.
3. The function of regulation is to establish laws that govern the life of society, to ensure the implementation of laws and related norms; assessment of the implementation by political subjects of established norms and laws.
4. Communication function - ensuring communication and information exchange between various elements of the political system.
5. The function of control is the assessment of the implementation by people and organizations of established norms and laws.
8. Guided by the text of the paragraph, draw up a structural and logical diagram of the "Political system of society."