Drama content of works. Drama as a literary genre. The concept of drama, its specific features
Theoretical foundations for the study of drama
The theoretical study of drama begins from the time of Aristotle, who formulated the canonical postulates of traditional ideas about drama and its main genres based on observations of the ancient Greek theater of the classical period. As long as the forms of art were to some extent oriented towards classical models and traditional aesthetic ideas, the Aristotelian theory of the theater did not change dramatically. The situation changed in the 20th century with the advent of the era of modernity, in connection with which there was a need for a new theoretical justification for various kinds of issues (generic affiliation, genre characteristics, aesthetic essence, the problem of authorship, etc.).
One of the problems that arise in the process of school teaching is the distinction between the concepts of "drama" and "dramatology".
The concept of "drama" in scientific sources is interpreted unambiguously (based on the tradition of Aristotle) - "one of the three types of literature (along with epic and lyrics). Drama belongs to theater and literature at the same time: being the fundamental principle of the performance, it is also perceived in reading.
In some sources, an attempt was made to establish one of its structural principles in the definition of drama, for example: "a kind of literary work in a dialogical form, intended for stage performance." It further states that drama, "like other forms of art, is one of the forms of social consciousness." V.E. In his research, Khalizev understands drama as “a meaningfully significant form of verbal art”, and its stage purpose comes to the background.. This raises the question of what is drama - "a kind of literary work" or - more broadly - "a form of art", and how this concept relates to the concept of dramaturgy.
Researcher I.N. Chistyukhin considers drama as a purely aesthetic concept, revealing a certain degree of intense struggle in the existence of an individual. The essence of this struggle is not in death or tragic defeat (as in tragedy), not in ridiculing something (as in comedy), but in the conflict itself, depicting the tension of human existence. That is, in the broadest sense, drama is an aesthetic concept.
In P. Pavi's dictionary of theatrical terms, drama is interpreted as "a text written for various roles and on the basis of a conflict action." That is, drama is understood as a specific dramatic text written for theatrical incarnation.
Both in literary and theater studies, the term "drama" is used to indicate a special genre of dramaturgy (bourgeois drama, lyrical drama, romantic drama).
Dramaturgy arises at the moment of the birth of the theater and is a product of the work of playwrights. In the dictionary of literary terms, dramaturgy is understood, firstly, as “a synonym for the conceptdrama as a literary kind or a set of dramatic works of one writer, direction or era, nation, region”, and secondly, as “the plot and compositional basis of a play, film or television film with details specifying it, as a rule, pre-recorded verbally”. Thus, literary critics understand dramaturgy as an interspecies art form created by the community of figures different types art: writers, composers, artists, actors, directors.
In the modern formulation of the concept of "dramaturgy", theater studies are trying to go beyond the framework of a literary text only, understanding the "activity ofplaywright, consisting in the comparison of textual and stage material, the identification of complex meanings of the text, the definition of interpretation, the orientation of the performance in the chosen direction ”(P. Pavi).
Some terminological confusion arises from the fact that dramaturgy is at the intersection of literature and theater, so we propose, following I.N. Chistyukhin, to separate the concepts of “drama” and “dramatology” as follows:
Drama there is an independent way of literary and scenic depiction of life, the subject of which is a holistic action that develops from beginning to end (from exposition to denouement) as a result of the willful efforts of heroes who enter into single combat with other characters and objective circumstances. Drama is part of the general theatrical process and a kind of literature as an art form
Dramaturgy - 1) the art of writing dramas, 2) the totality of the written dramas, 3) the type of organization of the artistic text of the drama.
Views on the theory of drama, which are considered traditional, were formed over several centuries. It seems logical to evaluate the dramatic works written at the appropriate time according to these canons. However, approximately since the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, much more significant changes have been taking place in the theory of drama, which allows us to express the idea of the need to evaluate subsequent works according to other principles. Let us note the main stages in the formation of traditional views on the theory of drama.
"Poetics" of Aristotle, reflecting views mainly on Greek tragedy and written in the 4th century. BC, penetrated into Europe at the end of the 15th century. The inaccuracy of the translation of the text, as well as the brevity of the theses set forth by Aristotle, later gave rise to many different interpretations and disputes around the conceptsmimesis ("imitation") and catharsis ("cleansing"). The principle of the three unities proposed in the treatise will influence the composition of plays for a long time. The theses of "Poetics", along with the theses of "Epistle to the Piso" ("Science of Poetry") by Horace (1st century BC) - the main classical work recognized at that time - formed the basis of the requirements for dramaturgy.
The canon that developed during the Renaissance began to change in the 17th century. The rejection of the principle of trinity with the preservation of only the unity of action, the unification of the signs of the comic and the tragic - one of the first fundamental changes reflected in Lope de Vega's New Guide to Composing Comedies, was later supported in The Art of Poetry by Nicolas Boileau. Common sense in poetry, as in any other area of life, has finally been placed above all else, and fantasy and feelings are subordinate to it.
The need to reconcile reason and feeling (G.E. Lessing, A. Muller, V. Hugo), realized throughout XVIII - XIX centuries, as well as the recognition of the principle of dramatic diversity and natural truth, were the prerequisites for the emergence of the theory of naturalism, formulated by E. Zola (preface to the play "Thérèse Raquin", 1873). In turn, close observation of people, their behavior and their environment influenced the formation of the intellectual method, traceable in the work of H. Ibsen and A.P. Chekhov.
The whole history of views on drama indicates that it occupies a special place not only in the literary process, but also in the history of the theater. Pointing to the duality of its aesthetic essence, addressing the reader and the viewer at the same time, A.P. Chekhov noted that the drama will always attract the attention of many theater and literary critics, while their reviews will differ from each other, because the subject of analysis will be different texts: literary (directly the text of the play) and theatrical (interpretation of the script text).
Let us determine the nature of the relationship between literary and theatrical texts. The performance is based not on the text of the play, but on the text of the script created based on it - you cannot put an equal sign between them and replace the reading of the play with watching the performance.
The difference between a script as a literary and dramatic work and a literary text lies in detailed description each scene: organization of space, movement of characters around the stage, their dialogues, gestures, facial expressions. The purpose of the script is to describe what, where, how and when should happen on the stage in order to convey the main idea. The purpose of the literary text is to formulate this idea.
Home distinctive feature performance is its uniqueness in time. V.G. Belinsky rightly believed that this is "an individual and almost unique process that creates a series of concretizations of a dramatic work, possessing both unity and difference."
And here, as noted by the director and theater theorist N.N. Evreinov, the literary text has an advantage over the performance: “The reader can learn it at the pace he wants, he can re-read the incomprehensible, he can put the book away for tomorrow, hoping for the freshness of the morning. On the viewer, all the conditions of textual perception are imposed by the author with school rigor.
Reading, unlike watching a play, does not impose anything on us that would go against our imagination - that's what it's good for. However, for readers who cannot imagine the hero or the environment surrounding him, the performance will be the best assistant. With the help of the musical arrangement of the performance, themes specially created to create the image of the character, you can supplement your reader's ideas, but here, again, we are not immune from inconsistency with our expectations.
The indisputable advantage of the performance is that it is possible to use all channels of perception (auditory, visual, and to some extent even touch, smell). The main thing is that everything that we see and hear does not take us away from the primary task of deepening the meaning. According to V.P. Ostrogorsky, the teacher cannot “neglect the situation that the stage owns and which enhances the impression of the viewer”, but one should not be deceived by stage effects alone.
It is also worth noting that viewing someone else's interpretation (director's, actor's) should be accompanied by a preliminary reading (so that at any time you can refer to the author's text), in order to get a better one.
Understanding the significance of the dual nature of drama is also found in the works of K.S. Stanislavsky. He wrote: “Only on the stage of the theater one can recognize dramatic works in their entirety and essence”, and further: “... if it were otherwise, the viewer would not aspire to the theater, but would sit at home and read the play.”
Art critic A.A. Karyagin notes that “for a playwright, drama is more like a performance created by the power of creative imagination and fixed in a play that can be read if desired, than a literary work, which, moreover, can be played on stage. And it's not the same at all."
Thus, the history of the study of the artistic nature of drama allows us to speak about the impossibility of considering the drama “outside of its original purpose to be presented on stage”. Therefore, when comprehending a dramatic work, it is advisable to work with two texts (literary and theatrical), note the moments of their interpenetration and take into account that the staging of a dramatic work on stage is, on the one hand, an artistic interpretation of a literary text, on the other hand, an independent work of theatrical art, built according to special laws.
The staging of the drama is its most important feature. From the point of view of R. Barth, theatricality, or theatricality, is “the theater minus the text”, it is “the density of signs and sensations” that are only implied in the text and lined up on the stage.
Scenery in a broad sense can be defined as a direct dependence of drama as a literary genre on the theater - the art of artistic transformation, the reflection of life in live dramatic action.
Scenery in the narrow sense is a set of specific properties of a dramatic work that ensure its suitability for performance on the stage. Therefore, a drama intended for staging, in contrast to the so-called "dramas for reading" (for example, "Manfred" by J. Byron, "Prometheus Unchained" by P.B. Shelley, etc.), must have liveliness, concentration of action, relevance of the problem , scenography (potential opportunities for scenographic solutions) in order to awaken in the viewer various feelings about what is happening on the stage. This is largely due to the internal capabilities of the play, which, in turn, are directly dependent on the skill of the playwright. Therefore, it is no coincidence that among the greatest playwrights there were those who were professionally associated with the theater (for example, Shakespeare and Molière were actors) or were in constant creative partnership with it (A.N. Ostrovsky and the Maly Theater, A.P. Chekhov and the Moscow Art Theater). theater, etc.).
In recent decades, theoretical theatrical thought has been seriously transformed. This is largely due to the feeling of a new artistic and aesthetic context, called postmodernism: the exhaustion of the old, the anticipation of the new, which has not yet taken shape and therefore is completely incomprehensible. The new theater science builds its entire conceptual apparatus on the postulates of the structuralists, formulated in the 60s of the twentieth century and strongly influenced by poststructuralism and postmodernism in the second half of the 70s. The final formulation of the new theory can be found in the works of A. Übersfeld and P. Pavi, as well as a number of other scientists.
Key Ideas modern theory drama, based on the trends of the general development of the theory of art and, in particular, literary criticism, are reduced to the following:
the communicative aspect, that is, the understanding of art as some kind of aesthetic information that the theater conveys to the viewer through a theatrical performance;
the semiotic aspect, that is, the understanding of the symbolic nature of the theater and theatrical performance;
the theory of actants, structuralist in origin, that is, a new vision of the character (the character, dissolved in a variety of interpretations, acts as an actant);
understanding of theatrical art as a kind of text, a product of creativity not only of a playwright, but also of a director, actors, set designers, etc.; text, consisting not only of words, but also mise-en-scenes, gestures, scenery, music, light, etc.
This approach to understanding the nature of the dramatic text underlies the emerging theatrics. The most important change in the approach to the study of drama theory is that drama is perceived as a special kind of art, the genre specificity of which is completely determined by the purpose for staging on stage. In domestic science, in line with these fundamentally new positions on the study of a dramatic text, the works of V.E. Golovchiner and N.I. Ischuk-Fadeeva.
One of the attempts to resolve the contradiction between the normative and non-normative principles of dramatic poetics is the concept of the German scientist M. Jan, set forth in 2002 in the “Guide to the Theory of Drama” (Hereinafter, information about the authors is given based on the article by I.P. Ilyin “Conceptual Problems new theory of drama).
He says that three directions have developed in the study of drama theory: "poetic drama" ( poetic drama ), "theatrical studies" ( theaterstudies ) and "reading the drama" ( reading drama ).
Correlates with the idea of normative poetics "poetic drama" Preference is given to the written (printed) text and its “careful reading” and, according to M. Yan, serves as the only reliable source, in contrast to the constantly changing artistic structure of the performance. The supporter of this approach is the American neo-critic C. Brooks.
According to the concept "theatrical studies" the text of the play does not have any independent existence at all, and the performance is of paramount importance in relation to the text. This position was reflected in the publications of J.L. Stein, R. Hornby, R. Levin, G. Taylor, H. Hawkins. The main difficulty of this approach, which causes fair criticism, is the impossibility of fixing in the form of a printed text the changing essence of the character of a theatrical performance. You cannot bring a performance home, take it off the shelf and return to it again and again to check your initial observations. When recreating it from memory, inevitable changes and new readings occur.
To this “theoretical uncertainty and unreliability”, in his own words, M. Yan opposes drama reading. Within this direction, the text is perceived both as a work of literature and as a guide to presentation. At the same time, an “ideal recipient” is needed for implementation - both a reader and a theater regular who evaluates the text from the point of view of its possible and actual production. Jan considers the researches of A. Übersfeld “Reading the Theater” (1977), as well as M. Pfister, K. Elam, D. Scanlan, and others, to be the program texts here. The task of this approach is the partial rehabilitation of a literary work, as well as a constant exchange of ideas between critics, theater theorists and practitioners. Text analysis is thus stage-oriented.
This approach seems to be the most productive in the process of analyzing a dramatic text in a school lesson. Of course, it comes into conflict with the traditional biographical method of studying the work, described by Sh.-O. St. Beauvoye. This method of analysis, centered around the unity of "author - creation - era", is good for working on creative biography writer, periodization of his creative heritage, analysis of autobiographical works. But in the process of analyzing a dramatic text, it turns out to be not productive. In our opinion, in the school study of dramatic texts, it is necessary to take into account new theatrical approaches.
1.2. The Use of Dramatic Work in Teaching Literature
The methodology for studying a dramatic work is determined by the specifics of drama: “Drama lives only on the stage. Without it, she is like a soul without a body, ”wrote N.V. Gogol M.P. Pogodin. To make the body of drama filled with soul is, in our opinion, the main task of a teacher of literature. Several generations of methodologists and language teachers wondered how to structure the study of drama in the classroom in such a way as to captivate schoolchildren, while not allowing the simplification and leveling of the artistic originality of the work. Turning to the history of the issue, we set the following goal- to summarize information about the ways of studying drama and find out what methods and techniques for working with stage history are proposed by methodologists.
The attraction of drama to the literature class began in the 18th century not with specific methods and techniques, but with recommendations for reading and recognition of the importance of studying drama in adolescence. The issues of reading and studying dramatic works were raised in the works of M.M. Shcherbatova, N.I. Novikov and others.
First half XIX century is characterized by the emergence of various trends that do not take into account the progressive course of development of realistic literature and cause the separation of literary education from life. Despite this, I.P. Pnin, A.F. Merzlyakov, P.E. Georgievsky, V.F. Odoevsky, N.I. Nadezhdin, F.I. Buslaev.
Dramatic text is included in the curricula for teaching literature, as well as in textbooks and anthologies on the theory and history of literature, mainly as an example for mastering the concepts of literary theory. During this period, the first questions of studying a dramatic work are raised. Acquaintance with drama as a kind of literature is limited to a historical review of dramatic genres. (A.F. Merzlyakov, P.E. Georgievsky). The theory of drama is being developed, the aesthetic categories of the tragic and the comic are distinguished (N.I. Nadezhdin, V.G. Belinsky). At this stage, attention to the language and immanent reading as a means of helping to reveal the meaning of the work are still in their infancy (F.I. Buslaev). However, already at that time, the involvement of related arts and visiting the theater were recognized as necessary components for comprehending the meaning of the drama in the works of I.P. Pnina, V.F. Odoevsky, V.G. Belinsky.
Meanwhile, we already find the first methodological guidelines for reading drama in line with our research in the articles of V.G. Belinsky, who drew attention to the importance of considering the stage interpretation of the play for a deeper understanding of it by the reader, showing the power in which the drama in the theater is “clothed from head to toe”, entering into an alliance with all the arts and receiving from them “all means, all weapons." Critic's articles, for example, "Woe from Wit". Comedy in 4 acts, in verse. The composition of A.S. Griboedov" or "Hamlet", Shakespeare's drama. Mochalov in the role of Hamlet”, are distinguished by the penetration into the game of actors, the re-creation of the atmosphere of the theater and can be a good material for work in the classroom. The main recommendations of V.G. Belinsky on reading and analyzing drama became the starting point for the methodology for studying it in secondary and higher schools.
The second half of the 19th century is a turning point in the history of education in Russia. The educational and literary activities of N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubova. This is the time of school reforms and pedagogical discussions. The reform of 1864 intensified the methodological activity of many teachers, who received the opportunity to independently draw up curricula based on the requirements of the ministerial instructions. During this period, such significant works as articles, programs and study guides F.I. Buslaeva, V.Ya. Stoyunina, V.I. Vodovozova, L.I. Polivanova, Ts.P. Baltalona and others. In the 60s of the 19th century, literature was formed as a special academic discipline; With the advent of new dramatic patterns in programs and textbooks, methodological approaches to their study also change, and new techniques arise.
The study of drama as an example for mastering the concepts of literary theory fades into the background. The value of home and class, expressive reading, retelling as methods for studying a dramatic work is substantiated in the works of the best methodologists and philologists of that time: V.I. Vodovozova, V.Ya. Stoyunina, V.P. Ostrogorsky, V.P. Sheremetevsky. The importance of in-depth analysis involving literary criticism and aesthetics is recognized. To comprehend the author's intention, a parallel analysis of composition and dramatic action is used. The principle of historicism, proposed in the works of V.I. Vodovozov and V.Ya. Stoyunin, is applied to the study of dramaturgy and is realized in the methods of historical commentary and comparison of works of various authors and eras.
At the same time, a relationship is established between the depth of the interpretation of the drama and its stage embodiment. The need to visit the theater while studying dramatic works is indicated by V.P. Ostrogorsky, V.P. Sheremetevsky. The organization of a school performance as one of the possible forms of work is substantiated in the works of N.F. Bunakova, N.A. Solovyov-Nesmelov.
“The study of dramatic poetry is, so to speak, the crown of the theory of literature ... - noted V.P. Ostrogorsky. “This kind of poetry not only contributes to the serious mental development of young people, but with its lively interest and special effect on the soul, it instills the noblest love for the theater, in its great educational significance for society.” Considering that it was impossible to pay due attention to the study of dramatic works within the framework of the program, he proposed compulsory extracurricular reading of plays and developed his own recommendation list.
According to V.P. Ostrogorsky, the teacher cannot "neglect the environment that the stage owns and which enhances the impression of the viewer." He encouraged the students to watch the performances on the Imperial stage and hoped that one day morning performances would be staged at cheap prices for poor students. V.P. Ostrogorsky, sharing the ideas of V.G. Belinsky, said that according to the articles of criticism, it is necessary to learn "to learn the meaning of the theater and the acting of the actor." His views are set forth in the article "In Memory of Mochalov". In the classroom V.P. Ostrogorsky introduced the youth to the history of drama and theater, but urged them not to be seduced by stage effects, but to try to understand what they are used for.
Close V.P. Ostrogorsky in his positions in pedagogy was V.P. Sheremetevsky, who left many useful tips and recommendations regarding the reading and understanding of dramatic works. Being a good reader, V.P. Sheremetevsky actively used expressive reading in the process of analyzing the work.
To solve the methodological problem - to accurately determine the essence of a dramatic character - V.P. Sheremetevsky not only analyzed Khlestakov's speech, but also compared the editions of the text of the play, tried to put the reader in the position of a spectator. He first substantiated the importance of the interpenetration of the text of the play and the performance in school classes and wrote about the incompleteness of studying drama without its stage implementation: "The stage performance is an indispensable commentary on tragedy and comedy." Therefore, V.P. Sheremetevsky advocated the resumption of performances at the school, suggested ways of staging them in close connection with the analysis of dramatic models.
Thus, in the methodology of teaching literature, the second half of XIX century, the main ways of studying a dramatic work are outlined, effective methods of analysis and interpretation of the text are proposed. But the questions of the need to use professional theatrical interpretations in a literature lesson are raised extremely rarely, therefore, the facts of the stage biography of a work are practically not included in the system of teaching schoolchildren.
Methodists of the early twentieth century are gradually moving away from the heritage of the 60s. Interest in a person, his place in society and internal state becomes the reason for deepening into the psychology of the character of a literary character, in particular a dramatic hero, in the works of Ts.P. Baltalona, D.V. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, V. Golubev.
The study of drama during this period is closely connected with the development of Russian dramaturgy. The success of the domestic theater is due to both the appearance in the repertoire of plays by A.P. Chekhov, M. Gorky, A.A. Blok, L.N. Andreev, and a new creative method. The Moscow Art Theater, which arose just at the turn of the century, turns out to be closer to Chekhov's dramaturgy, but does not exclude the "Gorky beginning". The new drama stimulates the creative pursuits of actors like K.S. Stanislavsky, V.I. Kachalov, I.M. Moskvin, L. Leonidov, V.V. Luzhsky, O.L. Knipper-Chekhov. The plays of M. Gorky, with their heroic tone, turned out to be consonant with the stage work of V. Komissarzhevskaya and M. Yermolova. The Maly and Alexandria Theaters are enriched by the immortal plays of A.N. Ostrovsky.
The rise of dramaturgy and theater determines the search for new adequate methods and techniques for productive analysis. Methodists meaningfully reveal and substantiate the effectiveness of visiting the theater in the study of dramaturgy. So, C.P. Baltalon devoted a number of works to the aesthetics of the reception of the theatrical audience. Speaking about the artistic enjoyment of the performance, Ts.P. Baltalon noted that a feeling of similarity of what he saw on stage with life impressions gives a special aesthetic pleasure.
At the same time, school theater is used as a form of extracurricular activities. N. Bakhtin and S. Krymsky determine the conditions for its pedagogical use:
a strict selection of plays so as not to turn the theater into mere entertainment;
feasible duration of the performance;
the role should correspond to the character and abilities of the child, be on his shoulder;
accumulation of a reserve of observations and the development of observation;
development of expressive speech;
understanding the motivation of actions, a deep interpretation of the play;
most importantly, teachers "should share with children their theatrical illusion."
N. Bakhtin saw in the drama the fundamental principle of the theater, designed for stage embodiment. In his opinion, in it the viewer (and reader) receives "a bright and complete embodiment of life, with living characteristics of the characters with whom we seem to merge, forgetting about our personality and experiencing with them the whole gamut of their sensations." N. Bakhtin insisted that schoolchildren visit the theater when studying drama, saying at the same time: "Class study of drama is the same as studying a plant according to its dried sample." He tried to organize the educational process in such a way as to make the theater, like literature, an instrument of education. For each age there is a theater: shadow theater - for preschoolers, puppet show Petrushki and the puppet theater - for younger students, amateur performances based on the children's repertoire - for the middle level and staging of classical plays - for older students. "The theater, going hand in hand with the school, began to prepare the future intelligent public." The theater came to be regarded as "a mighty lever of out-of-school education".
In the 1920s and 30s, Russian classics, including classical dramaturgy, were gradually forced out of the school curriculum. This is due to the destruction of the old education system and the construction of a new type of school. But the flourishing of the Soviet theater contributed to the fact that drama took an important place in the school literature course. Gradually, prominent domestic methodologists are returning to the ideas formulated by their predecessors before the revolution.
V.V. Golubkov and L.S. Troitsky enriched the analysis of the dramatic work by correlating it in the introductory lesson with the historical reality that gave rise to the play, and with the modern theatrical repertoire. The method of commented reading is deeply developed in the works of A.S. Degozhskaya and N.A. Rusanov. N.M. Sokolov puts into practice thoughtful reading in the classroom with parallel analysis of the text; one of the ways to study drama, he suggests "preparing a text for the theater and isolating from it what will be said on stage and what can only be shown." Analysis of the plot and composition in the course of a dramatic action is described in the works of M.A. Rybnikova A.S. Degozhskaya, N.A. Rusanov and reaffirms its expediency as one of the possible ways to study drama. Importance is attached in the process of analysis to establishing the motives of the characters' actions and revealing the characters of the drama (N.M. Sokolov, M.A. Rybnikova, V.V. Golubkov).
The question of the need to attend performances both during the study of the corresponding dramatic work and outside it sounds more and more insistent (in the works of M.A. Rybnikova, A.S. Makarenko).
So, A.S. Makarenko recognized the powerful aesthetic power of the theatre. In the theater of the Kuryazhskaya colony, created under his leadership, "the most serious big plays" by Gogol, Ostrovsky, Gorky and others were staged (for the winter - 40 plays). Being engaged in productions, the teacher achieved two goals: firstly, he helped the pupils to socialize, and secondly, he tried to arouse a keen interest in reading plays and discussing their problems. His pupils heatedly discussed the plays, in particular "At the Bottom", after reading them. At the same time, the analysis was deep and was not limited to only one social content. According to the teacher, there should not be an "empty, weak-willed visual impression" that does not generate thoughts and does not affect the individual: "A theatrical play should be accompanied by a discussion and exchange of opinions."
M.A. Rybnikova, in addition to substantiating many ways to study drama, also suggested conducting literary excursions, for example, to Griboedov's places in Moscow, to the merchant district of any city, so that one could imagine the life of Ostrovsky's characters. In the book “The Work of a Literary Worker at School”, the methodologist pointed out the need to compare editions of one work (using the example of “The Inspector General”).
M.A. Rybnikova was aware of the importance of the theatrical embodiment of the drama. The awakening of students' creativity, the rapprochement of students with the theater comes to the fore for her. She also practiced attending a professional theater followed by a discussion of performances. This, from her point of view, helped to feel the element, organic for the author. Viewing should be collective, so the play will excite more. And the analysis should be carried out according to the most recent impressions.
V.V. Golubkov, generalizing the experience of the best teachers of literature, puts forward in the "Methods of teaching literature" two important provisions for the study of dramatic works:
the study of plays "will be more complete and productive if students first watch them in the theater";
“It is established that a dramatic work is intended for the stage, and the question is decided what the author does for this purpose and what the actors, director and decorator should do.”
Summing up the results of this period, it is necessary to emphasize the importance for the modern methodology of the experience of the methodologists of the first halfXX centuries, especially in the development of the genre aspect in the study of a work of art at school: the introduction of techniques that contribute to the understanding of the poetics of the dramatic kind, as well as the search for ways to study drama at school.
However, it should be noted that scientists do not always rely on such a feature of the dramatic type as the drama's belonging to both literature and theatre. Of course, theatrical pedagogy began to actively develop within the framework of school literary education: new techniques appear related to the comparison of the studied classical text and the school play, the facts of the stage biography of a dramatic work are more actively used in the lessons (mainly in introductory or final classes). At the same time, the analysis of sources on the history of literary methodology shows that a clear system of techniques for studying a dramatic work has not yet been formed, the inclusion of the stage history of the play was used mainly as an illustration to the read text.
The first attempts to use the stage biography of the play as a tool for analysis can be found in the methodological experience of A.S. Degozhskaya, who, in the process of analyzing character images, invites the teacher to talk about the stage history of the play (for example, about N.V. Gogol's attitude to the first production, about Gorodnichiy-Sosnitsky, Dyur in the role of Khlestakov, Shchepkin's performance). For the first time, stage history becomes the subject of detailed consideration in the process of school study of the play. The purpose of attracting theatrical material to the lesson for A.S. Degozhskaya is the following: to show the significance of the reader-actor who completes the author's image, and then proceed to the analysis of the director's work. At the same time, according to E.S. Rogover, the stage history in this early article by the methodologist "turned out to be somewhat divorced from the analysis of the play and inconsistent with the characterization of the characters in the course of a generalizing conversation."
The methodology of teaching literature of the second half of the 20th century tries to solve the problems of moral and aesthetic education by means of dramatic art. A great contribution to the study of the problems of school teaching of drama is made by such scientists as N.A. Demidova, T.S. Zepalova, A.M. Zueva, D.A. Klumbite, N.O. Korst, N.I. Kudryashev, V.G. Marantsman, N.D. Moldavskaya, B.S. Naidenov, Ya.G. Nestrukh, M.A. Snezhnevskaya, T.V. Chirkovskaya, E.S. Rogover.
Various aspects of the methodology for studying drama are being successfully explored: ways and techniques for analyzing a dramatic text are being developed, features of the perception of a play are being clarified, and a circle of theoretical and literary concepts is being formed that are tools for studying drama in a school lesson. Methodists have proposed a set of methods for studying drama, such as listening to sound recordings of performances (V.P. Medvedev), choosing a “role for yourself” method (T.S. Zepalova), using director’s commentary in the analysis process (N.A. Demidova), mise-en-scene (E.S. Rogover), compiling a dictionary of drama terms (Z.S. Smelkova), etc.
In the works of scientists, ideas of theatrical pedagogy are also developed. So, N.I. Kudryashev in his work “The Study of Dramatic Works” develops the thoughts of his predecessors that when studying drama, it is necessary to rely on the life and theatrical impressions of students. At the same time, the knowledge about the theater already available to students must be constantly enriched. “Students need to attend performances,” the author writes, “although not provided for by the school curriculum, but accessible to a given age and having educational and educational value.” And, what is necessary, the viewing of the performance must be carefully prepared and comprehended. To do this, it is necessary to acquaint students with the history of drama (starting from antiquity), to tell in more detail about the Russian theater of the 19th century, to explain the principles of Shchepkin and Stanislavsky, which formed the basis of the realistic Russian theater of the 20th century. N.I. Kudryashev offers a system of exercises aimed at developing the imagination (reading poetry - reading poetry and prose with dialogues - reading and staging a fable - staging a story and compiling a film script), which will ultimately allow students to imagine the characters of the play and from the first lines of it to be included in the conscious reading.
The issues of attracting theatrical art to the lesson of literature are raised in the works of E.A. Akulova, I.I. Chernova.
In the work of M.A. Snezhnevskaya "Features of the Study of Dramatic Works", the priority is the analysis following the developing action, as it helps to gradually reveal the character of the character (through a comparison of the speech and actions of the character), to delve into the essence of the conflict. The author rightly notes that when studying the first dramatic work for schoolchildren, it is important to reveal its direct connection with the theater. And when considering drama in high school, a large place is given to the history of its creation and the development of Russian drama and theater. According to M.A. Snezhnevskaya, the performance can be watched with students before or after studying the play - it all depends on the set methodological task.
Dramaturgy of the 20th century school programs represented by a small number of works. One or two are studied within the framework of a monographic topic, while the rest are reviewed, in the context of addressing the topic on the relevant issue. The main works with which students are invited to work are “The Cherry Orchard” by A.P. Chekhov, "At the Bottom" by M. Gorky, "Duck Hunt" by A.V. Vampilov.
It is noteworthy that the stage history of the plays by Chekhov and Gorky also becomes an object of attention in the literature lesson. However, reference to it is provided not in the process of analyzing the text of the work, but often at the end of the study of the topic and is illustrative. Only in one of modern programs(under the editorship of V.G. Marantsman) when studying the "Cherry Orchard" on profile level the presentation of the material is provided in such a way that students can compare Chekhov's idea and the director's implementation, as well as trace further fate this play and other works of the playwright on stage and in cinema.
The phenomenon of the new Chekhovian drama and the social and moral problems of Gorky's works, which are so difficult for self-comprehension, are addressed once, less often - twice during the entire school practice of high school students in a relatively small amount (Gorky's work is studied for 3-4 hours; Chekhov - 3-5 hours on the basic level, 7 hours - on the profile). It seems possible to make this appeal qualitatively different, thanks to the inclusion of the facts of stage history in the process of analyzing the work. To achieve high activity of students in the process of analysis and a deep understanding of the author's intention, you can change the approach to the study of dramatic works. Using stage history as a tool for analyzing a dramatic work, one can revive the direct perception of students, make it deeper and more conscious, thereby contributing to the improvement of interpretive skills from the level of a simple reader to a prepared "reader-spectator".
Thus, having analyzed the methodological heritage in the field of studying a dramatic work and attracting theatrical art to a literature lesson, we can summarize and reduce the provisions described in them to three aspects:
1) spectator (students in the role of spectators comprehend the ideological and artistic originality of the performance, and through it the play);
2) performing (students in the role of actors - acting out,
dramatization - basically everyone, through their role, is trying to understand
the nature of the character and the essence of the conflict);
3) stage (attracting stage history to a literature lesson, comparing interpretations as the main technique, a student in the role of a researcher).
These aspects can be implemented at any stage of the lesson, but they have, in our opinion, the optimal ranges of use. For the audience, this is the final stage in the study of drama, as a generalization of what has been analyzed, when the performance helps to create and maintain an idea of the integrity of the work, brings all levels of analysis together. A visit to the theater is also possible at the introductory stage, but in this case it must be planned in a special way. One of the possible ways: before the performance, you need to ask a question so that the viewing is not an end in itself and so that the student has a fulcrum in his thoughts, with which he can always correlate what he saw. Already during the analysis of the text, it will always be possible to compare what was written - what was read - what was seen (how the author described the specific moment, the student understood and how the actors embodied it).
Implementation of the performance aspect is possible at the stage of analysis and at the final stage. As preparation, you can use expressive reading, reflecting the depth of understanding of the situation, characters and conflicts. Acting out the scene is already the result of the analysis.
Involvement of the facts of stage history, demonstration of video clips of various performances within the framework of the stage aspect is advisable at all stages of the analysis of a dramatic work. Using special techniques at each stage of the analysis, which will be discussed in the second chapter, you can create an attitude to reading, deepen the perception of the text, reach the concept of the versatility of the image and the adequacy of interpretation, and contribute to the creation of a personal interpretation.
Let's draw conclusions about the use of stage history in the process of analyzing a dramatic work:
methodological science has accumulated extensive experience in the study of dramatic works. In particular, in most cases, it is recognized that the analysis of drama must be based on its main specific essence: its intended purpose for the reader and viewer;
the involvement of stage history in the study of the dramatic text was in the nature of "use", mainly the use of the ideological and educational potential of the play; there was no system of equal participation of the literary and theatrical text in the process of literary education of schoolchildren;
It seems to us that in the current sociocultural situation, it is necessary to search for new creative methods of working with dramatic works, designed, on the one hand, to make text analysis more productive, and reading more desirable and conscious, on the other hand, to bring the learning process closer to the realities of today's life and trends modern theatre. For this, in our opinion, it is necessary to create conditions for the activities of students as a director of a performance, an actor, a composer, a stage designer, a critic, etc.
The main thing is to properly organize the work so that when analyzing the work, it is not possible to skew towards the artistic and technical design. The purpose of all these techniques is to get interested in reading and interpreting a dramatic work, to develop reading and form the spectator's competencies of students based on the comprehension of the typological properties of a dramatic work.
DRAMA(Greek drama - action), one of the main genres of modern theatrical art (along with comedy and tragedy).
Drama is the youngest of the major genres. If the first theoretical study of tragedy and comedy known to us dates back to the 4th century. BC. ( Poetics Aristotle), the drama was singled out as a separate genre only in the 18th century. The theoretical substantiation of the new genre is associated with the name of the famous French encyclopedist Denis Diderot.
Being a materialist philosopher and at the same time a writer, playwright, Diderot in his theoretical and practical work proceeded from the postulate that art is an imitation of life. Therefore, he came up with a program for the radical transformation of the French theater, sharply objecting to the contemporary aesthetic trend of classicism. The strict canon of the classicist tragedy, with its elevated pathetic style, depiction of "ennobled nature", one-dimensional and static characters, coming from antique samples, was criticized by Diderot for being limited and isolated from life. In addition, in Diderot's principled position, his social views also played a significant role, which determined his demands for the democratization of theatrical art ( About dramatic poetry, 1758; Actor Paradox, 1770-1773, etc.).
The need for the democratization of the theater and the destruction of the strict formal canons of dramaturgy was the imperative of the time - it is not for nothing that the same principles were developed almost simultaneously in other European countries(in England - J. Lillo and E. Moore; in Germany - G. E. Lessing and others).
Before Diderot, in theoretical works on dramaturgy, the class affiliation of genres was not questioned: tragedy tells about the life of the upper classes, comedy of the lower; these genres are strictly demarcated, and behind the tragedy in the 17th century. the designation of the "high" genre was assigned, for the comedy - "low". Diderot actually created a new theory of dramaturgy, not only denying the aesthetic or ideological hierarchy of genres, but also developing a new genre of “petty-bourgeois drama”, intermediate between tragedy and comedy, in the center of which are representatives of the third estate, “honest bourgeois” (later on the definition of a new genre, the term “drama” was fixed, the epithet could change depending on the problems and characters: “moral drama”, “philosophical drama”, “social drama”, etc.). It was this hero, whose experiences and suffering the author, and therefore the audience, take seriously and with sympathy, determined the fundamental novelty of the genre.
The new hero also entailed a change in the scale of the events depicted. If the heroes of the tragedy solve the cardinal problems of life, and their actions and destinies influence the development of society, then the events of the drama are more local. Its heroes can experience a true tragedy, but a personal, subjective tragedy that does not have a wide public resonance, but does not become less difficult or scary because of this. These principles undoubtedly brought dramaturgy closer to real life, in fact laying the foundation for psychological theater (and, therefore, bringing the art of the actor to a fundamentally new level), as well as the formation and development of additional genres of dramaturgy (melodrama, tragicomedy) and various aesthetic trends (sentimentalism, naturalism). , realism).
Today, drama is perhaps a comprehensive theatrical genre with formal boundaries and attributes that are difficult to define. In the theater, the term "drama" is often used in a broader sense - in application to any play, regardless of its genre. In addition, in theater studies and theater criticism, the term is often used as a synonym for the word "drama".
In everyday language, the word "drama" is used to define any out of the ordinary events of high intensity, as a rule - unhappy, accompanied by a great surge of emotions.
Tatyana Shabalina
Drama (from Greek - Action) - a kind of literature, one of three, along with epic and lyrics. The basis of the drama, as the initial essence of the word indicates, is action. In this, the drama is close to the epic: in both cases, the objective image of life occurs through events, actions, clashes of heroes, struggle, that is, through the phenomena that make up the outside world.
But what is described in the epoch as an event that took place (or a system of events), is presented in the drama as a living event that unfolds in the present tense (before the eyes of the viewer!)
Shown through conflicts and in the form of dialogue. From the differences mentioned, one should not draw conclusions about the superiority of one literary genre over another. Drama achieves emotional and aesthetic influence through its own unique artistic means. Having no other opportunity, except for remarks, to speak “on his own”, the playwright transfers the center of weight to the image of the process of action itself, making the viewer (or reader) a living witness of what is happening: the heroes of the drama must characterize themselves with their actions, language, evoke in the viewer sympathy or indignation, respect or contempt, etc.
AT theatrical performance the most diverse types of art coexist: poetic word and music, painting and architecture, dance and facial expressions, etc. All this is the result of the common creative efforts of a playwright, actor, director, artist, musician, even a stage engineer.
The stage purpose of the drama dictates its specific literary features: features of the choice and construction of the plot, the originality of the depiction of characters, and compositional articulation. Designed for a collective emotional impact, the drama tries to excite the viewer with the special sharpness of conflicts, the tension of the struggle that the characters lead when their interests collide. “Drama was born on the square and was the amusement of the people,” wrote A. S. Pushkin. It is necessary to distinguish between drama as one of the literary genres and drama as a genre of dramatic works.
AT last value drama - a play of a social or everyday nature with an acute conflict that develops in constant tension. The protagonists of the drama are mostly ordinary, ordinary people. The origin of drama as a genre can already be seen in the dramaturgy of antiquity (“Ion” by Euripides), but it has received significant distribution since the 18th century.
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Greek drama - action) - a kind of literature in which an image of life is given through events, actions, clashes of heroes, i.e. through the phenomena that make up the external world.
Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
DRAMA
Greek drama - action).- 1. One of the main. birth of the artist literature (along with lyrics and epic), covering works usually intended to be performed on stage; subdivided into genre varieties: tragedy, comedy, drama in the narrow sense, melodrama, farce. Dramatic text. consists of dialogues and monologues of characters embodying certain human characters, manifested in actions and speeches. The essence of drama is the disclosure of the contradictions of reality, which are embodied in the conflicts that determine the development of the action of the work, and in the internal contradictions inherent in the personality of the characters. Plots, forms, and styles of drama have changed over the course of cultural history. Initially, myths served as the subject of the image, in which the spiritual experience of mankind was generalized (D. East, Ancient Greece, religious D. European Middle Ages). A turning point in dramatization came with an appeal to real history and state and everyday conflicts (D. Vozrozhdeniye, the dramaturgy of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Corneille, Racine, and others); plots D. began to reflect the events and characters of the majestic and heroic. In the XVIII century. under the influence of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment, D.
the promoters of the rising bourgeois class (Didero, Lessing). The realism of the Enlightenment romanticism of the first half of the 19th century. contrast legendary and historical plots, extraordinary heroes, intensity of passions. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. symbolism revives mythological subjects in D., while naturalism addresses the darkest aspects of everyday life. D. in socialist art, striving for a comprehensive coverage of reality, follows the traditions of realism of the previous period, often supplementing realism with revolutionary romance. 2. A variety of plays in which the conflict does not receive a tragic, deadly denouement, but the action does not acquire a purely comic character either. This genre of drama, which is intermediate between tragedy and comedy, was particularly widespread in the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries. A striking example of such a variety of plays is the dramaturgy of A.P. Chekhov.
Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
On the one hand, when working on a drama, the means that are in the writer's arsenal are used, but, on the other hand, the work should not be literary. The author describes the events in such a way that the person who will read the test can see everything that happens in his imagination. For example, instead of "they sat at the bar for a very long time" you can write "they drank six beers each", etc.
In the drama, what is happening is shown not through internal reflections, but through external action. Moreover, all events take place in the present time.
Also, certain restrictions are imposed on the volume of the work, because. it must be presented on stage within the allotted time (up to a maximum of 3-4 hours).
The requirements of drama, as a stage art, leave their mark on the behavior, gestures, words of the characters, which are often exaggerated. What cannot happen in life in a few hours, in drama it can very well. At the same time, the audience will not be surprised by the conventionality, implausibility, because this genre initially allows them to a certain extent.
At a time when books were expensive and inaccessible to many, drama (as a public performance) was the leading form of artistic reproduction of life. However, with the development of printing technology, it has lost ground to epic genres. Nevertheless, even today, dramatic works remain in demand among society. The main audience of the drama is, of course, theatergoers and moviegoers. Moreover, the number of the latter exceeds the number of readers.
Depending on the method of staging, dramatic works can be in the form of plays and scripts. All dramatic works intended to be performed from the theatrical stage are called plays (French pi èce). Dramatic works based on which films are made are scripts. Both plays and scripts contain the author's remarks to indicate the time and place of the action, indicate the age, appearance of the characters, etc.
The structure of the play or script follows the structure of the story. Usually, parts of a play are designated as an act (action), a phenomenon, an episode, a picture.
The main genres of dramatic works:
- drama,
- tragedy
- comedy
- tragicomedy
- farce
- vaudeville
- sketch.
Drama
Drama is a literary work depicting a serious conflict between actors or between actors and society. The relationship between characters (heroes and society) in works of this genre is always full of drama. In the course of the development of the plot, there is an intense struggle both within the individual characters and between them.
Although the conflict is very serious in the drama, it can nevertheless be resolved. This circumstance explains the intrigue, the tense expectation of the audience: whether the hero (heroes) will be able to get out of the situation or not.
The drama is characterized by a description of real everyday life, the formulation of "mortal" questions of human existence, a deep disclosure of characters, the inner world of characters.
There are such types of drama as historical, social, philosophical. Drama is a melodrama. In it, the characters are clearly divided into positive and negative.
Widely known dramas: Othello by W. Shakespeare, At the Bottom by M. Gorky, Cat on a Hot Roof by T. Williams.
Tragedy
Tragedy (from the Greek tragos ode - “goat song”) is a literary dramatic work based on an irreconcilable life conflict. Tragedy is characterized by a tense struggle of strong characters and passions, which ends in a catastrophic outcome for the characters (usually death).
The conflict of a tragedy is usually very deep, has a universal meaning and can be symbolic. The protagonist, as a rule, suffers deeply (including from hopelessness), his fate is unhappy.
The text of the tragedy often sounds pathetic. Many tragedies are written in verse.
Widely known tragedies: "Chained Prometheus" by Aeschylus, "Romeo and Juliet" by W. Shakespeare, "Thunderstorm" by A. Ostrovsky.
Comedy
Comedy (from the Greek komos ode - “merry song”) is a literary dramatic work in which characters, situations and actions are presented comically, using humor and satire. At the same time, the characters can be quite sad or sad.
Usually comedy presents everything ugly and ridiculous, funny and awkward, ridicules social or domestic vices.
Comedy is subdivided into the comedy of masks, positions, characters. Also this genre includes farce, vaudeville, sideshow, sketch.
Situation comedy (comedy of situations, situational comedy) is a dramatic comedy work in which events and circumstances are the source of the funny.
A comedy of characters (comedy of manners) is a dramatic comedy work in which the source of humor is the inner essence of characters (morals), funny and ugly one-sidedness, an exaggerated trait or passion (vice, defect).
A farce is a light comedy that uses simple comic techniques and is designed for a rough taste. Usually a farce is used in a circus lunade.
Vaudeville is a light comedy with entertaining intrigue, which has a large number of dance numbers and songs. In the US, vaudeville is called a musical. AT modern Russia it is also commonly said "musical", implying vaudeville.
An interlude is a small comic scene that is played between the actions of the main performance or performance.
Sketch (English sketch - “sketch, sketch, sketch”) is a short comedy work with two or three characters. Usually, the presentation of sketches is resorted to on the stage and television.
Widely known comedies: "The Frogs" by Aristophanes, "The Government Inspector" by N. Gogol, "Woe from Wit" by A. Griboyedov.
Famous TV sketch shows: "Our Russia", "Town", "Monty Python's Flying Circus".
Tragicomedy
Tragicomedy is a literary dramatic work in which a tragic plot is depicted in a comic form or is a random jumble of tragic and comical elements. In tragicomedy, serious episodes are combined with funny ones, sublime characters are set off by comic characters. The main method of tragicomedy is the grotesque.
We can say that "tragicomedy is the funny in the tragic" or vice versa, "the tragic in the funny."
Widely known tragicomedies: "Alcestis" by Euripides, "The Tempest" by V. Shakespeare, "The Cherry Orchard" by A. Chekhov, the films "Forrest Gump", "The Great Dictator", "The Same Munchazen".
More detailed information on this topic can be found in the books of A. Nazaikin