Outstanding. Extraordinary mental abilities Extraordinary abilities and those
Good afternoon, our readers!
How often do you think about such a quality of a person as originality? And about yourself? Or maybe you think that this is a quality inherent in children? Do you know what is originality? BUT naivety, which should be only for children? Is there a difference between these two personality traits?
originality
Exceptionality differs from naivety in that the first quality is art. be yourself in any life situation. Look at the children, and everything will immediately become clear to you. Are they always the way they really are, until a certain age, when society whispers to them that they need to adapt and be cunning in order to appear “good” in front of everyone? And how many people think about the questions?
Every child is who he is. He quickly changes mood and expression of feelings. For example, in a certain moment he may be upset about his activities because of a big problem for him (it’s small for you, so parents ignore what is happening with their baby). And then, when the situation changed for the better for him, he forgets about all his grievances and failures, laughing out loud and smiling at everything and everyone around. Adults can't do that. Because they wind up many of their conclusions in relation to others, thereby cultivating within themselves, only aggravating their situation. Many will even be angry with children for a long time, although the latter have long forgotten about insults.
The originality of an adult is the ability, first of all, to accept oneself as he is, avoiding other people's principles and stereotypes. Outstanding personalities know how to live with an open heart, love for themselves and other people. They live without regard for the judgments and evaluations of other people. But they themselves, at the same time, are highly moral people. Outstanding individuals tend to be successful in life.
Wonderful and detailed about originality tells in his book. Read on occasion. You will open your eyes to many things that you are not even aware of.
naivete
What is adult naivete? This, first of all, is the unwillingness to leave that period, remaining naive until the end of days. These are some “simpletons” who always ask ridiculous questions, from which you simply don’t know where to go, surprised at what an adult, it would seem, asks them. You, our dear Reader, have probably encountered such people more than once in your life.
I always answer children's questions with pleasure and joy, but only when the question belongs to the child. In general, talking with children, I have a feeling of joy and lightness inside me. This is not only because I love our younger generation, but also because children, through their behavior, teach us to be spontaneous in any situation.
It is a pity that many people are sure that "eggs don't teach chicken." Sometimes the wisest thought in the world belongs to a small spontaneous child. If you ignore his statements and point of view, putting your pride and importance ahead of you, you lose a lot in life - happiness, joy, well-being, success, independence. In a word, originality. Why? - you ask. Because through a child, the purest being on Earth, our Creator, our Universe, speaks to us.
My husband and I often listen to our children, and very often in our family life happen . Try to listen carefully, listen, and most importantly, HEAR your children.
But get rid of naivety - a childish quality that can sometimes be interpreted by adults as human stupidity. Naive people can most often be deceived, naive people can be easily manipulated, naive people are finally zombified.
Of course, there is a category of people who are naive. It’s easier for them, they “turn on the“ fool ”, as if not understanding what is happening. But this is also a mask that takes a person far away from happiness and success. This game creates a habit, making a person arrogant, impudent and immoral.
Be outstanding , staying yourself, beware naivete in yourself, feel difference between these two personality traits, remaining children in the soul, and at the same time, adults and responsible people in front of themselves, their neighbors, in front of the whole Universe.
Friends, do you still have questions? Feel free to ask them in the comments. I will gladly answer you.
Be happy, joyful and prosperous on the way to your Perfection!
The culture of primitive man had a syncretic character (primitive culture is also called a primitive syncretic complex). This means that scientific knowledge, religion and mythology, art did not exist in isolation from each other, but in an inseparable unity, and each member of the tribe was the bearer of all the components of culture. The first scientific knowledge was of an applied nature and was numerous. To ensure the survival of the genus, a person had to store information about the characteristics of plants, about the habits of animals, about cyclical changes in nature. Production, which was the main condition for the existence of people, necessarily assumed the accumulation of correct, sound knowledge about the world. The needs of practical activity made the appearance of a calendar necessary, which presupposed the emergence of astronomical knowledge. The original calculation of time was probably based on the moon. Then came the solar calendar. At the same time, a map of the starry sky was formed: constellations were distinguished, they were given names.
parking .Undoubtedly, the existence of religion and fine arts in the Late Paleolithic. Suffice it to mention the famous painting of the caves of Altamira (Spain), Lascaux, Montespan, La Madeleine (France) and others, which has forever entered the golden fund of human culture. People of primitive society organized holidays with various kinds of entertainment: music, songs, dances, pantomimes, games, competitions in running, wrestling, etc. Some dances were of a ritual nature, but this was far from being the case with all.
Religion . Primitive forms of religion are usually divided into 4 elements related to each other: 1) fetishism; 2) totemism; 3) magic (magic); 4) animism.
Fetishism: the essence of religion and the problem of the time of origin. Fetishism is considered the most primitive and perhaps the most ancient form of religion. Doctor of Historical Sciences Yu. P. Frantsev analyzed Siberian shamanism - this is the most primitive form of religion, which is based on totemism. In the 70-90s of the twentieth century, another point of view developed: fetishism is not a separate religion, but component all religions. The word "fetishism" was introduced by the French scientist De Broc. By fetishism, he understood the belief of primitive people in the presence of supernatural properties in inanimate objects. Fetishes for different occasions. A fetish is an object made of either bone, stone, or wood. De Brocq did not believe in the existence of a soul in fetishism (Christina, please check this point in your lecture, it’s written in a strange way, I can’t understand who didn’t have a soul: a fetish or De Broca?). De Brock explained fetishism in the following ways: 1) helplessness of a person; 2) human ignorance.
Fetishism is most studied in Africa. Until now, African fetishism (especially Western) is considered the most studied. Rudiments are preserved in world religions: in Christianity, the cult of relics that can heal, the cross. The term "fetishism" is derived from the Portuguese "fetish", which means "magical, wonderful." De Broc added "ism" to the name. Until now, fetishism remains the least studied person, although traces of it are known among many tribes in Asia, Africa and Australia. If totemism is the property of peoples who are at the initial stages of the development of culture, then fetishism is found wherever "sacred things" exist. Fetishism was common among all primitive peoples. There is no single point of view on the origin of fetishism. In the 18th century, Voltaire spoke out on the problem of the origin of religion: "Religion appeared when the first cunning met the first fool." Voltaire himself was an atheist, he believed that the shamans deceived fellow tribesmen in order to obtain benefits. He spoke out against the church, then expressed the point of view that religion should be supported, but it should be without a church. In the twentieth century, a different concept is emerging, in which the views of Voltaire are denied. It is believed that the French figure of the Enlightenment interprets religion too simply. Historians of the 20th century come to the conclusion that shamans did not even have a conscious deceit in their thoughts, on the contrary, they tried to help. Another point of view appears in the European science of the 20th century. Its adherents believe that fetishism is a distortion of the alleged original monotheism. Mostly church ministers believe in this.
Totemism: the essence of religion and the problem of the time of origin.
Totem is a word taken from the language of one of the Indian peoples of North America - the Algonquins. Originally it sounded like "from the father". Totem is an animal, an ancestor of a primitive collective, a progenitor. As it is right, either large predators or large game animals (most often bison) acted as totems. Right now in historical science the following interpretation of totemism has developed: totemism is a belief in the mystical connection between man and animal. The term "totemism" was introduced into science by Lewis Morgan in the second half of the 19th century. By the end of the 20th century, Australian totemism was the most studied. The social and psychological meaning of totemism: a person wanted to become like an animal. People revered totems because they wanted the same qualities as animals. Totemism is characterized by such a concept as "panpsychism" - endowing any object with a soul. This idea has been preserved in many religions, but not in Christianity. By the beginning of the second half of the Early Paleolithic, the specialization of each of the primitive human herds in hunting one of the animal species was more or less clearly defined. The life of every primitive collective, and thus of all its members, turned out to be closely connected with animals belonging to one particular species. Hunting for animals of this species was the main source of food for the people of this group, the main source of life's blessings. The fate of the collective and all its members depended on the success of hunting for animals of this species. This objectively existing connection of a certain human collective with a certain kind of animals could not but be realized by the members of this collective.
Magic: the essence and problem of the time of generation. Magic was formed during the periods of the middle and late Paleolithic (approximately 120-15 thousand years ago). An early form of religion. Under magic is meant a system of ritual actions based on the belief of a primitive person in the ability to control supernatural forces: the spirits of nature, dead people. If a person wants, he will force these people to serve him. Shamans appear - people who better manage everything, most often people with physical and mental disabilities became shamans, and a tribe of such people fed. Fraser George (Englishman) in the 20-30s of the twentieth century creates labor (maybe not labor, but just some writes a work) "The Theory of Magic", in which he proposed a classification of magical rites. The essence of the theory is set out in two principles:
rituals are divided according to the criterion: "like gives birth to like." He believed that magic is imitation. I was also sure that the origin of the cave drawings was the work of magic. The same hunting scenes were the details of magic. Under the guidance of a shaman, these rites were held, black and white magic does not exist. At the heart of all magical rituals are hunting, gathering and fishing.
Impact on a person with the help of an object, or a part of the body that belonged to him. If they wanted to harm a person, then black magic was used, if they wanted to help, then white magic.
At this time, basically all the rites are associated with love (sex) magic. Some rituals are associated with coaxing brownies. In the 60s, the Soviet scientist S. A. Tokarev proposed a different classification: magical rites can be viewed from the point of view of necessity in areas of public life:
meteorological magic - rituals associated with the forces of nature. Most often - causing rain.
Love (sexual) - the desire of a person to bewitch someone.
Hunting (trading) - rituals associated with the success of obtaining food.
Medical (quackery) is based on gathering. Welcomed in any tribes. Often the positions of the medicine man and the shaman coincided (in the event that the shaman was bright).
Reasons for the appearance of magic. Fraser suggested that magic is the first form of human consciousness. I did not think that magic is the same as religion. Religion eventually supplanted magic. After religion came scientific consciousness. Fraser writes that magic differs from religion in that it actively influences the world. But there is no religion: they only humbly pray there. Fraser brings magic closer to religious science. Both affect the world, but magic is negative, but religion is not. Fraser's theory caused disapproval in the USSR. Tokarev said that it is wrong to separate magic from religion. According to him, religion = magic. Scientists attribute the time of the emergence of magic to the period of primitive society, more precisely, to the era of the Stone Age. There is evidence that magical rites and beliefs already existed among the Neanderthals, who lived 80-50 thousand years ago. We are talking about burials (warehouses) of bear bones in the Mousterian caves of Drachenloch (Switzerland), Peterschel (Germany), Regurdu (France), which are considered as evidence of hunting magic (cave bears at that time were one of the main objects of human hunting). Primitive people, some scientists believe, by preserving bear skulls and bones, hoped that this would enable the killed animals to return to life and thereby increase the number of these animals. Many tribes that preserved their primitive way of life as early as the end of the 19th century and had similar rites of burying the bones and skulls of dead animals gave just such an explanation to these rites.
Animism: the essence and the problem of the time of generation . The term "animism" was introduced in the 19th century by the famous English ethnologist Edward Burnett Tylor. He designated them as a primitive religion, created, in his opinion, by a "savage philosopher" who was trying to understand the causes of being. It is very important that the researcher himself wrote this word with a capital letter - Animism and distinguished its two main varieties: beliefs about souls and spirits associated with the human body, and beliefs about spirits leading an independent existence. Further, based on the fact of widespread animism, Tylor put forward the formula: "Animism is the minimum definition of religion." This formula was used by many religious scholars in their constructions, however, during the discussion of Tylor's concept of animism, its weaknesses were also revealed. To date, the use of this term in the Taylor formula is practically not used. According to other sources, the term "animism" was first introduced by the German scientist G.E. Stahl. In his Theoria medica (1708), he called animism his doctrine of the soul as a kind of impersonal life principle underlying all life processes. But here we are dealing with the consumption of the term not in the true religious sense. In fact, there are quite a few definitions of the concept of animism. This concerns, first of all, with the choice for this term of the first and main word in the definition, which would reflect the very essence of this concept: some call animism a great religion, others - a worldview, others - a system of beliefs, fourths - a complex of cults, fifths - a doctrine, sixths - a kind of spiritualism and much more. Many of these definitions appeared as a result of simple ignorance in the field of the original meaning of the term, which has recently become a really urgent problem of modern society. However, all these definitions of animism have the same root - animus (soul). In the early stages of development, due to the fear caused by the inability to explain natural phenomena and imagine one’s place in the world, a person ascribes the supernatural to everything around him and, first of all, to objects directly related to his life: the animals that surround him, which he hunts on which his life depends; natural phenomena that he is not able to predict and on which success in agriculture and, again, his life depends. This was expressed in the fact that a person began to transfer his properties and sensations to the whole the world. Thus was born the belief that nature is alive. Stones, trees, rivers, clouds - all these are living beings, only unlike a person, just as a tiger, an elephant, a bear are unlike him. And those that differ too much from a person may have completely special, incomprehensible and inaccessible to people properties. Fire burns, lightning kills, thunder rumbles in a way no man can shout. A sensitive, watchful, attentive man of ancient times simply could not help but feel the force invisibly present in the world, on which both life and death depended. We can learn the first ideas of our ancestors about the supernatural beginning in the whole surrounding world from archaeological excavations. And the first such knowledge arose among scientists after finding burials of skeletons and skulls of Neanderthals (if these are Neanderthals, then the era is the early and middle Paleolithic, the remains of a Neanderthal were found at the end of the 19th century near Düsseldorf). These finds were perceived as evidence of the existence of a funeral rite. In Neanderthal man, the ability to abstract has increased markedly. Abstraction, while providing a person with great opportunities for understanding the world around, at the same time creates a prerequisite for separation from reality, an irrational explanation of the connections in the world around. That is why the Neanderthals had a belief in the supernatural, i.e. religion.
myths . In the primitive era, literary works also arose: sayings, proverbs, stories, fairy tales. Myths occupied a special place among them. In its original form, a myth is a narrative in which certain natural or social phenomena are interpreted and explained as the results of the actions of the heroes of this story. The first object of such an interpretation, explanation was the actions of people, but not ordinary, understandable to everyone, but ritual, ritual, handed down from generation to generation and performed by virtue of tradition. The original myths arose from rituals. The first myths were totemic. Performed by members of the collective dressed up as a totem animal, ritual totem dances began to be interpreted as scenes from the life of distant ancestors, and these ancestors began to be regarded as creatures that were both people and animals, as half-humans, half-animals. The descriptions and explanations of these rites, handed down from generation to generation, began to unfold into more or less coherent narratives about the life and adventures of totemic ancestors. When the formation of totemic myths was completed, the rites that were their basis acted as dramatizations of these myths, dramatic illustrations for them. In the future, myths began to arise independently of rituals. In them, the actions of certain creatures began to explain a variety of phenomena. Myths about cultural heroes - creatures who introduced certain customs, norms of behavior, social institutions, elements of material culture - have become widespread. Initial ideas about cultural heroes are very close to ideas about totemic ancestors.
18) The development of elements of spiritual culture at the stage of the early primitive tribal community.
The period of the early tribal community - this is a period of active development of spiritual culture and rational knowledge.
The accumulation of knowledge about the surrounding nature helped survival, and in this regard, the knowledge of the ancestors even exceeded the knowledge of modern man: they could easily find water, food, they knew all the plants and animals of their countries, there were more edible plants than they were subsequently cultivated.
Medicine is developing: there are various methods of primitive surgery, they treated wounds, fractures, and performed craniotomy.
There is an accumulation of arithmetic knowledge. It is believed that the modern world inherited a decimal number system from primitive man, which is not very convenient, by the way (such examples appear quite early: for example, the Sungir culture, the Sungir horse). You can see a rhythm common in the Paleolithic, based on the seven. In those days, the calculation of time did not concern larger periods: it covered either the time of day or the seasons: river floods, bird migrations. Apparently, at that time there were no calendars with a clear starting date, and all dates were associated with specific events. A person could explain his age by saying that he was born in the year when there was the biggest flood of the river or famine. There were ideas about how to measure the distance: long distances were measured by days of travel, smaller ones by the flight of a spear, and even smaller ones by the length of human organs (arms, legs). The calculation of distance could not be purely geographical, but social: geographical and social factors could be combined when measuring distances: for example, a clan where close relatives live could be considered closer than a closer geographical clan where non-relatives live. Among Europeans, the opinion is accepted: what will be ahead, and what was behind. For some African peoples, the opposite is true. The distance could also be divided into one's own, mastered, and someone else's.
The fine arts continued to develop actively: cave paintings of the Upper Paleolithic are realistic: there were images of mammoths, bison, horses, images of people are much less common, and images of plants are practically not found. In some caves, there are a large number of images of hands, and in some places there are “macaroni”: the wall of the cave was smeared with clay, and then winding lines were drawn with five fingers. In the Mesolithic, there is a turn towards a conventional image, images of people appear in greater numbers. You can also remember the sculptures.
Music develops: flutes, various plucked and percussion instruments appear. Collective dances appeared, imitated some scenes from hunting, life, were associated with cult practice.
In general, primitive thinking differed from modern thinking, it was characterized by some inseparability, illogicality, emotionality, and most likely there was no clear distinction between the natural and the supernatural: often everything that surrounded people (animals, plants, natural objects) was endowed with a soul. And all this humanization of the surrounding world is called animatism: for example, a man was walking along the road, stumbled on a stone and fell - the stone is to blame, he does not love a person. Or a man ran away from an animal, a stone fell under his arm, a man threw a stone and killed the animal - a good stone. Gradually, with the development of the worldview and thinking of people, ideas about universal living creatures and some kind of supernatural substances appear: spirits and gods. For example, a spirit lives in a tree, and it depends on it whether a house will be good from this tree. The notion that everything around is alive is called animism.
Ideas about the soul appear. For example, in some tribes it was believed that a person could have several souls: soul-blood, soul-breath, soul-heart, soul-lung, soul-shadow, soul-reflection, and they can leave a person, after which he gets sick. During sleep or a serious illness, the soul leaves a person, then returns. In many nations, the soul is represented in the form of a bird or a butterfly. Some peoples had ideas about the soul, which penetrates the whole person, and they sought to preserve the body as long as possible. Therefore, they had facial vessels in which parts of the body were placed. Some natural objects appear to be alive, because some kind of spirit lives in them, good or hostile to man.
Various propitiatory actions (sacrifices) appear, which can precede or complete a deed. Entire systems of things or products are being developed that need to be sacrificed in some case.
Shamanism appears, or an ecstatic way of communicating with space, when a person, with the help of drugs and music, brings himself into a trance and sincerely believes that he has entered the other world in order to return the soul of a sick person or to guide the soul of the deceased, or to consult with the spirits about hunting. Another way to influence the spirit was magical actions - magic, for example.
Magic meant the automatic achievement of the goal with the right action. Various researchers have developed various classifications of magic.
One of the first such researchers was the Englishman J. Fraser. He divided magic into positive (witchcraft, when you need to do something) and negative (taboo, when you need to not do something). For example, among the Caucasian peoples, if the husband goes hunting, the wife should not wash her hair and tell someone where her husband went, so that the animals would not hear and the animals would not be washed away with water. Frazer in positive magic emphasized:
Initial magic, when the result was achieved automatically;
Imitative magic: “like is called like”: in order for it to rain, you need to pour water (blood, milk). You need to harm someone - make an enemy figure and harm it;
Partial magic: influence on a part of an object in order to influence the whole. It was believed, for example, that it is possible to influence a person in his footsteps. In the Middle Ages, at the courts of the eastern rulers, there was a man who had to eat the trimmed nails of the Sultan so that no one would touch them and hurt him. Miklouho-Maclay had to exchange his hair strands for Papuan hair strands in order to conduct anthropological research.
Another researcher S.A. Tokarev proposed a classification of magic not according to the method, but according to the purpose of the action and singled out the types:
Malicious magic; - Therapeutic and protective; - Love; - Military magic - directed at the entire enemy army, it includes protective rites for its troops; - Fishing magic (hunting, fishing). The Itelmens, the peoples of the north, first made images of whales from grass and ate them, and then went to whaling; - Meteorological; - "Industrial" - a magical technique that should ensure the correct firing of dishes, the manufacture of tools.
Speaking about the cult practice of that period, we will put in the first place fishing cults (ensuring successful hunting and fishing) and rituals associated with a sociostructural cult - totemism: ideas about the relationship of a given kindred group with some kind of animal, less often a plant. All genera had such ancestors and ancestors. Their choice is not entirely clear, since strong predators were not always taken as their quality. Sometimes a tree, stream, rain, rainbow acted as the ancestor. There is no special religious organization headed by priests, but in each clan there is a shaman, healer, sorcerer, soothsayer. Sometimes there may be a separate shaman and sorcerer. During this period, there are no established dogmas and books, beliefs are a chaotic structure of images.
Myths appear that explain the world around us, the origin of things. Sometimes they have supernatural beings as characters. A characteristic feature of myths is that they do not concern global things, but specific ones: not why did lakes arise, but why did this particular lake arise? For example, a woman went with a jug to the river, took water, then stumbled, the jug broke, and this particular lake turned out. Where did the rainbow come from, why does it rain? Sometimes myths define social phenomena. The myth of where death came from is popular.
19. Changing the elements of spiritual culture of the late primitive tribal community.
The development of agriculture and animal husbandry has led to the development of new knowledge in the field of breeding: new varieties of agriculture are emerging. crops, new breeds of animals, etc. In Melanesia, at the stage of the late tribal community, 52 varieties of bananas, ten varieties of yams, 14 varieties of breadfruit were known, the Iroquois knew 11 varieties of corn. AT South America quite quickly there was a division into llamas and alpacas. The development of a prestigious economy, exchange led to the development of knowledge in the field of arithmetic, there are ways to calculate the harvest, which requires operating with large numbers. Calculation tags appear, heaps of stones, knots, by and large, the word calculation comes from the Latin "calculus" - a counting stone. The distribution of land between plots led to the development of geometry. There is multiplication, division. The development of pottery contributed to the emergence of the first knowledge in the field of chemistry: how to choose the right clay, how to add any substances to it correctly. The first geographical maps appear, depicting specific routes, and not the territory of the surrounding area. Writing is emerging, although primitive, apparently in the form of pictography - picture writing. With the help of drawings, they managed to write entire chronicles: the most famous is the chronicle of the North American Gelovar tribe “Valam Olum”: it consisted of 184 drawings and told about the history of the tribe from its inception to the arrival of Europeans. A knotted letter appears among the South American Indians, and the Iroquois wrote with the help of embroidery from shells, beads, and messages appeared - wampums. In the visual arts, the conditional manner of writing is in the first place. Simplicity is characteristic of painting, symbolic images are used in large numbers: circles, spirals, painting acquires a plot character. A decorative trend in art is developing: ornamentation on ceramic vessels, artistic painting on the same vessels, bone carving, and embroidery. Musical instruments appear. Abstract thinking develops, religious beliefs become more complex. In religious life, agricultural and pastoral cults come to the fore. Cosmogonic (about the creation of the world) and anthropogonic (about the creation of man) myths continue to develop. Totemism gradually fades into the background and is replaced by the cult of anthropomorphic, but quite real ancestors. A pantheon of gods begins to take shape, in which an important role is played, on the one hand, by the gods responsible for natural phenomena (the god of thunder, the god of the sun, the god of rain), and, on the other hand, the gods of cattle breeding. The Iroquois had three sister goddesses: the goddesses of maize, beans and pumpkins. In Indonesia, one of the supreme goddesses was the mother of rice. The most important holidays are the spring holiday associated with sowing, and the autumn holiday associated with harvesting. There are myths about a dying and resurrecting god - the god of grain. And another innovation is the myths about cultural heroes, who, on the one hand, were perceived as the winners of the forces of chaos (Hercules, Theseus), and on the other hand, the heroes-producers of cultural goods, who either stole something and gave it to people (Prometheus), or they themselves came up with something and taught people (Hephaestus - pottery, Athena - weaving).
TICKET No. 20. The spiritual culture of society in the era of politogenesis.
Politogenesis - a concept proposed by L.E. Kubbel and denoting the genesis and development of the political subsystem of society, which can be transformed into a state or its analogue. As a result of politogenesis (and especially as a result of the formation of the state), administrative, forceful and legal methods begin to play an increasing role in the management of society.
Qualitative shifts took place in the evolution of spiritual culture, which found, in particular, their expression in the division of labor that had begun and in the establishment of a fundamentally new form of accumulation and transmission of information - writing.
The development of agriculture, especially irrigation, required an accurate determination of the beginning of field work, irrigation dates, etc., and thereby streamlining astronomical and calendar knowledge. The use of the simplest astronomical instruments began. First lunar calendars were lunar, i.e. based on the change in the phases of the “non-permanent” Moon, with the complication of economic activity, the transition to more accurate solar calendars began.
The development of other branches of useful knowledge was also connected with the practical needs of the era. The construction of fortifications and megalithic cult complexes, the construction of such improved land and water vehicles as a wagon and a sailing ship, contributed to the development not only of mathematics, but also of mechanics. With the advent of the smelting of ore metals, metallurgy and, to some extent, chemistry were born. Long-distance trading expeditions and military campaigns, land and sea, served to accumulate the same astronomical observations, as well as to develop the rudiments of geography and cartography.
The beginnings of social science, primarily historical knowledge, were still closely connected with religious and mythological ideas about the miraculous nature of everything that exists.
With the emergence of the state and law, legal knowledge began to emerge. They were also intertwined with the psychological attitudes of the communal-tribal way of life, religious ideas, and so on.
In the era of politogenesis, new types of art appeared, and art as a whole began to differentiate into elite and common people.
Monumental architecture emerged. Cyclopean or adobe fortifications, temples, tombs appeared, which, as can be traced in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, are directly related to the emergence of major leaders. For the most part, the emergence of monumental sculpture - tomb statues - is also associated with leaders or outstanding warriors.
The development of the craft was accompanied by a remarkable flourishing of applied arts, the best images of which were again created for the needs of the leaders. These were decorated clothes, jewelry, expensive weapons, household utensils, etc. Art casting, embossing, gilding of metal products, the use of enamel, inlay with precious stones, mother-of-pearl, bone, horn, tortoise shield, etc., have become widespread. The initial stage of artistic metal processing is reflected in the skillfully forged and engraved with totem signs copper plates of the northwestern Indians, the heyday - in the famous Scythian and Sarmatian products, decorated with realistic or conditional images of people, animals, plants.
As for religion, a belief in personal patrons developed, most often known as nagualism (the area of \u200b\u200bmodern magical esoteric knowledge, the magical teachings of the Toltecs (The people who lived before the Aztecs in Mexico City, laid the first foundation for arts and agriculture in this country)). With the spread of agriculture and cattle breeding, fertility cults were established. They are characterized by erotic rites and human sacrifices, symbolizing the transfer of human sexual potency to the earth, as well as images of dying and resurrecting spirits associated with the agricultural cycle.
With the development and complication of the cult, a special category of its servants, the priests, emerged. If at one time cult abilities were in principle recognized for all, or at least for many members of the collective, and the corresponding functions were usually performed by leaders only as its representatives, now these abilities were attributed only to certain individuals who were considered owners of strong patron ancestors, miraculous qualities, secret knowledge and etc. In this regard, even a special form of religion has been developed - shamanism, consisting in the allocation of certain persons - shamans, who are credited with the ability to enter into direct communication with spirits by bringing themselves into a state of ecstasy.
In the era of politogenesis, religion for the first time became not only a perverted worldview, but also a means of ideological influence on the exploited masses.
21. The concept of "Ancient East": historical geography and chronological framework of history. Historical Geography. concept "The Ancient East"- a scientific term that developed in Europe in the 18th - 19th centuries. The science dealing with the history of the Ancient East is called Orientalism (Oriental Studies). During this period of time, the countries of the Near and Middle East were attributed: Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and the countries of South and East Asia. In the 20th century, the countries of Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and Transcaucasia began to be referred to the concept of "Ancient East". The territorial boundaries of the countries of the East are very extensive, they cannot be reduced to any one civilization. to the north - from modern Ethiopia to the Caucasus Mountains and the southern shores of the Aral Sea. In ancient times, there were numerous states on this territory that played an important role in history: the great Ancient Egyptian kingdom, the Babylonian state, the Hittite state, the huge Assyrian Empire, the state of Urartu, small state formations on the territory of Phoenicia, Syria and Palestine, the Phrygian and Lydian kingdoms, the state of the Iranian Highlands, including the world Persian monarchy, which included the territories of the Middle East and almost the entire Middle East, the state formations of Central Asia, the states of Hindustan, China, Korea and South - East Asia. The Ancient East is a collection of several civilizational centers: - Egyptian(North African - Egypt) ; - Mesopotamian(Near East); - Iranian(in ancient times, the Iranian center meant Persia, but then the concept of "Iranian center" included not only Persia); - Indian(South Asian - India); - Chinese(Far East - China).
Around each country were satellite countries. At a certain stage of development, satellite countries became independent (for example, Arabia, a country that eventually became the center of the Arab Caliphate). Satellite countries of the largest civilizations of the Ancient East: 1) Egyptian: Ethiopia, Libya, Sudan (Nubia). 2) Mesopotamian: Arabia, Syria, Transcaucasia, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Palestine. 3) Iranian: Afghanistan, Parthia (Turkmenistan + Iran), Khorezm (Western part of Uzbekistan from the sea), Bactria (Uzbekistan), Sogdiana (northern Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan). Parthia considered itself the heir to Iranian civilization. The Iranian center was a worthy rival of the Roman Empire. Both powers competed for the Great Silk Road. four) Indian: Ceylon (Sri Lanka: never part of India, nevertheless, experienced cultural and religious influence), Burma (east of India: the language is Chinese, and the culture is Indian), Thailand, Nepal, Cambodia, Malaysia (Malacca; Islam came only in the XV century, there is an influence of Buddhist culture). 5) Chinese: Vietnam (south), Korea (west), Turkestan (east; the Chinese call Xinjiang; the population spoke either Tibetan or Turkic.
Chronological framework of history. In contrast to our modern times, in none of the countries of the Ancient East there was a single initial date, from which it was possible to count time and build off with an accurate fixation of ongoing events. The starting point of history is the time of the appearance of the most ancient state formations: approximately 5000 years ago (XXXI - XXX centuries BC). The most ancient states arose in different parts of the East: Egypt (Nile Valley), Sumer (Euphrates and Tigris), Proto-Indian state. The starting point of the history of the Far East is the formation of the Chinese state (4 thousand years ago). From the 18th century BC, the history of the Chinese state begins (Shan-Yin - the first dynasty). The completion of the ancient history of the countries of the East is the arrival of Alexander the Great (4th century BC). Ancient history India and China are studied until the 5th century BC, the conditional milestone is the Great Migration: the Chinese Wall collapsed, the Huns reached India and adopted Indian culture. The 5th century BC milestone is important, but not recognized by all civilizations. China - from the 30th century to the 5th century BC, Egypt - from the 20th century to the 4th century BC.
Thus, in historical science there are no generally accepted criteria by which one can clearly define the chronological framework of the history of the East as a whole, that is, each civilization has its own starting point and its own end point for the existence of civilization. Attempts at a common civilization are arbitrary, although many stories use this periodization:
the era of early antiquity (3 and 2 thousand BC). Archeology: Eneolithic and Bronze Age. The very first civilizations arise.
The heyday of the ancient civilizations of the East (from 2 and 1 thousand BC to the end of 1 thousand BC).
The era of late antiquity (from the end of the 1st millennium BC to the middle of the 1st millennium AD). Ancient civilizations are in crisis: some are falling apart.
A person can stand out from the background of other people in different ways, depending on his mental abilities and desires corresponding to these abilities. However, a person with truly outstanding mental abilities does not need recognition and exclusivity, such people change everything around them, including the way of thinking and worldview of other people. It is not by chance that I touch upon the topic of mental abilities, given the growing number of requests to me by people who are dissatisfied with themselves, I decided to go deeper into this issue and for some it is possible to put everything in its place. I am sure that those who thoughtfully read this article will understand the essence of the definition of a person's mental abilities, which will undoubtedly affect the self-esteem of such people and their future way of thinking. First of all, a person simply cannot be dissatisfied with himself, it is so easy for us to say when the results of our activities, and life in general, do not fully satisfy us, or do not satisfy us at all.
And we can be dissatisfied precisely with the result, which, despite the fact that it is the result of our mental activity, is still not completely predictable under any conditions. I think that for many it is obvious that the strength of any person lies in his mental abilities, I have already written about this, and more than once, so I will not prove this axiom, but will focus your attention precisely on those very abilities of our brain that we we call mental activity. The result of our mental activity, depending on its success, that is, on how much the achieved goal corresponds to the set one, of course, is an indicator of a person’s mental abilities, but not the only one, since there is also an indicator of what generally determines your goal. Often I am approached by people who are dissatisfied with the results of their lives, but at the same time they have a fairly good way of thinking, they are constructive, pragmatic, reasonable, and in principle they can solve a number of tasks that they set for themselves.
There is one problem - the very setting of tasks is incorrect, plus, the order in which these tasks are performed is also wrong. Of course, our psyche is significantly affected not only by the negative result to which we come, but also by the very process of thinking, which we do not understand, because if you act according to the instructions, you do not delve into the meaning of what you are doing, and many of us do this. The essence of the work of the human brain lies in the calculation, it is essentially the same computer, only more advanced. Given the fact that our world is all mathematics, that everything in it can be calculated, and everything is arranged according to certain algorithms, it becomes clear why the brain is so important, because no other human organ has the ability to carry out calculations. Even the same intuition is nothing more than an unconscious process of brain calculations that is not controlled by us, which is why it is so weak. But for the operation of any computer, including such a complex one as human brain, data is needed that we upload to our brain, then it processes it, spending its power and our time on it.
The data, in turn, comes to us from the outside world, in fact, for this we need training. And no reading of the information field or background, which is professed in Eastern philosophy and other esoteric sources, provides such necessary information, as does the external tangible and understandable world through our organs of perception. From birth, a person has a set of basic data in the form of instincts, which, through the processing of his still not very developed brain, help him adapt to this world and join the development process. This process can take place in different people in different ways, someone is in a more adequate and more informative environment, someone is in less favorable conditions for development, hence the different levels of mental abilities. If a person was born without any mental and physical pathologies, if he is completely healthy, this is already a successful and very smart person, or rather an example of such a person, because the data is loaded into his head, and now this is the most important process.
The essence of any learning comes down, firstly, to forcing the brain to do its job, that is, to perceive information correctly, to carry out the calculations and analysis necessary for its structuring, and secondly, to upload information from outside into your database, to memorize it , not just to passing through itself. A person will then use this information both when planning his actions and for recognizing what he observes. When a person thinks, he is engaged in the calculation through his brain and the available information, while processing both the information in his head and the incoming, real-time or recently received information. The signal from the outside is the very impulse that requires a response, and we constantly receive such informative impulses, giving them our answer in the form of a reaction. That is, a pre-prepared answer, or in the form of a result of their calculations, which, of course, will always be more adequate than a more or less suitable answer. In general, I can talk about such obvious things, but unfortunately not everyone understands them for a very long time, because as you yourself understand, dear friends, you can continue to analyze our mental activity in a logical chain for a very long time and thoroughly.
I will make such an analysis in my other articles, but for this article it is time to summarize what has been said, so that people who have an idea about their mental abilities perceive them in the right way and use them correctly. The bottom line is that no matter how you think you are as a person, in terms of your mental abilities, you are actually smart people, in the sense that your brain can perform the same algorithmic functions as the brains of the greatest people, as far as if they weren't great. The difference can only be in the data that you have in comparison with other people, and in your desire to think at all. Since the process of mental activity, when the brain makes various calculations, is in itself very complex, requires a lot of energy, time and stress, very few people are engaged in this process, replacing the concept of thinking, asking questions and looking for answers to them, correct answers through calculations, by enumeration the data already in your head. This is such a bust, it's the same as re-reading an old book several times in order to get something new out of it, which, by the way, is sometimes very good to do.
But this is not a calculation in itself, the calculation should have more data and, by processing such data, produce a completely new result, since each new situation in our life is unique to a certain extent. Given the above, you, like me, in principle, cannot recognize authorities in this life, they simply do not exist, each of us is unique in his own way, and above all for himself. Having the same set of data as a person with extraordinary abilities, using your brain, setting a task for him to achieve this or that result, you can repeat the path of absolutely any genius, or go your own. As for the desire itself, the topic of which I also touched upon at the beginning of the article, it is also formed from your innate qualities and, accordingly, your vital needs, plus it is influenced by external factors. Therefore, when choosing, and everything in this life is based precisely on your choice in terms of the final result, which is already a technical issue, we are guided by natural needs, either to a greater or lesser extent.
That is, to set a goal that is stupid in nature, you can be guided by incorrect ideas about the outside world, mental abilities in themselves in this case are expressed only in the data loaded into the human head. The inaccuracy of such data can be understood by a person either on an intuitive level, which by the way often happens, or through experience, one’s own or someone else’s, it already depends on the freezes of your brain, which I will write about some other time. In general, reading smart books and communicating with people who have achieved some success in life, as it was, and remains the most the best way load useful data for human life, processing which and guided by which, you can significantly increase the number of successfully set and successfully completed tasks, and such tasks that really make a person's life better. I would also like to add a few words about the speed of thinking, because you also agree that it is not an unimportant factor, which, meanwhile, trains throughout your life.
In general, like human muscles, the brain will work as fast as it becomes a habit, therefore it is necessary to train the brain as often as possible, set yourself tasks and look for ways to solve these tasks, only for your own good, set tasks that affect your life , that is, bringing specific beneficial results. Here, in fact, you have an analysis of the extraordinary mental abilities of a person, which in fact are not, not some kind of gift, not something else exceptional that some people possess, and not all. Even people who have physiological defects from birth or who received them during their lives can live a full life in terms of mental abilities, since the missing parts of the brain are replaced by others, which has been repeatedly proven during experiments and confirmed by examples from life. Can you dear friends after that, so to speak, take a steam bath in relation to yourself and your abilities, can you have complexes in front of others?
Yes, of course not, because if something doesn’t work out for you, then this is not a sentence, your strongest part is your mental abilities, you can be reconfigured at any time and you can solve any task assigned to you. The most basic problem of many, of course, is the reluctance to use their brain and data that does not correspond to the real world, the processing of which also leads to errors and, as a result, to the wrong results that should have been according to the desires of a person. Yes, and the desires themselves are often erroneous, and are imposed, because if you do not have your own idea of \u200b\u200bsomething, you will be guided by someone else's, which primarily meets the interests of its author. Study and study again, learn the right and necessary things in life, communicate with smart people, focus on the strong, and of course process all the information loaded into yourself, and whoever you are at the moment in life, it will not have any values for who you want to be.
Any problem, any tasks will be solved by you taking into account your interests, nevertheless you will not be insured against mistakes, they always have a place in life, but this is not so scary, because an error in itself is also a result, only a different result not the one you planned. Compare your thinking to the template I have presented, find the problem and fix it, the basic qualities of thinking that we all admire so much are in everyone. Only separate parts can be a malfunction, such as information that you are guided by or lack of it, and of course laziness too, as I said, unwillingness to think is a problem.
Ant. ordinary, ... ... Synonym dictionary
extraordinary - extraordinary appetite extraordinary mind ... Dictionary of Russian Idioms
OUTSTANDING - OUTSTANDING, oh, oh; den, bottom. Unusual, standing out from others. Outstanding abilities. | noun uncommonness, and, wives. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ozhegov
Outstanding - adj. Standing out from others; outstanding. Explanatory Dictionary of Ephraim. T. F. Efremova. 2000 ... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Efremova
extraordinary - extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, extraordinary, ... ... Forms of words
outstanding - uncommon poisonous; briefly form den, bottom (outstanding) ... Russian spelling dictionary
outstanding - kr.f. neaurya / den, neaurya / bottom, bottom, bottoms; Nezaurya / day ... Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language
outstanding - uncommon / bottom (outstanding) ... Together. Separately. Through a hyphen.
extraordinary - Syn: exceptional (strengthened), extraordinary, outstanding, rare, rarest (strengthened), rare, remarkable, phenomenal (book, strengthened), unique (strengthened) Ant: ordinary, ordinary, ordinary, banal ... Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary
outstanding - oh, oh; den, bottom, bottom. Standing out from others; outstanding. N th personality. N. musician. New abilities. N. talent, mind. ◁ Uncommonness, and; and. N. personality. N. abilities, mind, talent ... Encyclopedic Dictionary
Books
- Falstaff, or the Extraordinary, by Cesare Vergati. Bimba Selvagja Landmann, born in Milan in 1968, graduated from the Brera Academy of Fine Arts. Since 1988 he has been engaged in book graphics; books with her illustrations have been translated into more than twenty… Read moreBuy for 599 UAH (Ukraine only)
- Jan Brueghel the Elder, . The outstanding master created multi-figure paintings on religious and mythological themes, painted landscapes, allegories, everyday compositions, and was also the author of numerous, lush ... Read moreBuy for 419 rubles
- Jan Brueghel the Elder, . An outstanding master created multi-figure paintings on religious and mythological themes, painted landscapes, allegories, everyday compositions, and was also the author of numerous, lush ... Read moreBuy for 402 rubles
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Extraordinary man wikipedia
Synonyms for "uncommon"
Morphology:
OUTSTANDING, -th, -th; -den, -bottom, -bottom. Standing out from others; outstanding. Outstanding abilities. □ My childhood passed among people - outstanding, cultured and, in the sense of characters, very strong. Yuriev, Notes. Boris decided to surprise the master in order to show from the very beginning what an outstanding locksmith he would have to deal with. V. Kozhevnikov, Boy from the outskirts.
Source (printed version): Dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes / RAS, Institute of Linguistics. research; Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. - 4th ed., erased. - M.: Rus. lang.; Polygraphic resources, 1999; ( electronic version): Fundamental electronic library
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I already understood that the coffin names a structure or structure. More precisely:
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- wall, border, fence: wall, fence, hedge, wings, screen, gate;
- material: brick, tile, tile, granite, polystyrene;
- dwelling and its elements: skyscraper, tent, roof, awning, spire, staircase, fireplace;
- non-residential building: stall, gas station, station, church;
- monuments and culture: monolith, monument, sculpture, pedestal, stele;
- natural structure: beehive, hollow, birdhouse, lair, windbreak;
- infrastructure: bridge, gas pipeline, overpass, viaduct, lighthouse;
- military structure: dugout, bunker, tunnel, bastion.
Synonyms for the word "uncommon":
Expressions containing "uncommon":
- He really turned out to be an extraordinary person.
- His Majesty perfectly used the first opportunity that presented itself, which speaks of outstanding abilities.
- She is an interesting conversationalist, has an extraordinary mind.
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What (who) is "out of the ordinary":
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Extraordinary Extraordinary
How many girls in the world to whom their outstanding beauty did not give
nothing but the hope of extraordinary wealth.
Every mediocrity considers itself extraordinary!
If a woman bets only on her outstanding beauty,
then extraordinary, but unrealizable hopes often come to the finish line.
Excellence as a personality trait is the ability to show outstanding abilities, stand out from others, be the first among equals.
He was an outstanding person, even out of the ordinary.
Having lived in the outback for many years, the husband considers himself a real rural guy. However, his wife loves to tease his urban habits. Recently, right in front of guests, she said: - Yes, you never knew what a cow looks like until you met me!
Extraordinary - the ability to get out of the general system, to go where no one has been before, not to be afraid to be different. Extraordinary is the possession of outstanding abilities, coupled with manifest charisma and extraordinary inner attractiveness. What you can’t attribute to originality, even being biased and tendentious, is herd feeling and conformism. An outstanding person has his own point of view on everything and does not pay attention to the fact that his opinion is at odds with the opinion of the majority. Extraordinary people are usually disliked precisely because they are not like everyone else, because they do not act like everyone else, have their own opinion and are not afraid to express it.
The Strugatsky brothers in the book Burdened with Evil write: “An outstanding person wants to leave a world different from the one in which he appeared, a better one, enriched by his own creativity. For this, he is ready to sacrifice most of the joys, or even all the joys that an ordinary person enjoys!
Much has been given to an outstanding person, and to whom much has been given, much will be required. Therefore, fate teaches hard lessons to outstanding personalities. Accepting these challenges, an outstanding person becomes even more tempered, improved, and grows personally. An outstanding person is able to conquer many peaks, but if, having achieved success, he has cultivated pride, greed, selfishness in himself, then it would be better for him not to be born.
Extraordinary usually communicates with unusualness, exclusivity, brilliance and unusualness. People are especially surprised by the phenomenon of an extraordinary mind. When the great warrior Arjuna asked the Almighty: - By what signs can you recognize a person who is in a state of perfect peace and freedom. What words does he utter, What is he surrounded by people and alone with himself. As he behaves in everyday life, the Almighty replied: - Oh, great warrior, a person who is in a state of perfect peace is not attracted by the temptations of the surrounding world. He understands that, as a particle of consciousness, he is alien to the world of external things, and therefore seeks happiness within himself. Such a person has an extraordinary mind. Whoever is not disturbed by the three kinds of external influences, who has distanced himself from worldly pleasures, is not attached to the images of the external world and does not experience fear and anger, he has taken the right point of view and uses the mind for its intended purpose.
In "Tibetan Yoga" ten signs of an outstanding person are given:
1) To have almost no swagger and envy is a sign of an outstanding person.
2) Having almost no passions and being satisfied with simple things is a sign of an outstanding person.
3) The absence of hypocrisy and cunning is a sign of an outstanding person.
4) Ordering one's behavior according to the law of cause and effect (the law of Karma) as carefully as people take care of their eyes is a sign of an outstanding person.
5) Being true to one's obligations and deeds is the sign of an outstanding person.
6) To be able to maintain a sensitive friendship, while at the same time treating all beings impartially and fairly, is the sign of an extraordinary person.
7) To look with compassion and without anger at those who live badly is a sign of an outstanding person.
8) Recognizing victory for others while accepting defeat is a sign of an outstanding person.
9) To be different from the crowd with every thought and deed is a sign of an outstanding person.
10) To observe faithfully and without arrogance one's vows of temperance and piety is a sign of an outstanding person.
Uncommonness - ignoring the wind of general opinion. She is dismissive of grades and labels. She is alien to vain values, petty questions. She reacts with disdain to the worldly carousel of hypocrisy.
Rozanov recalls: “Pobedonostsev to the words: - This will cause bad talk in society - he stopped and did not spit, but somehow he let out saliva on the floor, rubbed it and, without saying anything, went on.”
Another feature of uncommonness. Antoine de Rivarol writes: “Extraordinary minds are deeply attentive to everything familiar and ordinary, while ordinary minds show interest and passion only for what is out of the ordinary.”
The inconsistency is noticeable. Visibility is the best way to grab attention. Seth Godin, in his classic marketing book Purple Cow, uses a beautiful metaphor to illustrate this principle: It's boring when there are only brown cows grazing in the field. The purple cow does not live up to people's expectations, and it naturally attracts attention and interest.
A person can stand out, become noticeable against the background of other people in different ways. An extraordinary personality stands out due to its brightly manifested personality traits, extraordinary mental abilities and desires corresponding to these abilities. It is characteristic that a truly outstanding person is modest, that is, he has no greedy desire for honors, no need for recognition and exclusivity, no desire to amuse his pride and vanity. Such people change the outlook of other people, offer a fresh look at this or that phenomenon of life.
It's hard to feel sympathy for the unhidden originality. Actress Faina Ranevskaya was a vivid manifestation of an outstanding personality. Her biographer, Darina Lunina, says that there was something in Ranevskaya that did not need polishing - an innate ability for creative improvisation. In part, this happy talent was due to deep education and a sense of humor. Many brilliant roles were literally sucked out of Ranevskaya's finger. Sometimes the directors themselves asked her to “brighter outline” the image. And she outlined. Once, for example, at the “instigation” of Pyasetsky, who was staging a play in Stalingrad, she invented an unforgettable heroine from scratch - a woman who came to her benefactor in the hope that she would feed her, and while the hostess was absent, she stole an alarm clock. As soon as the “nurse” returned with a pie, the alarm clock hidden by the thief under her coat rang, and in order to drown it out, I had to amusingly raise my voice. The case ended in tears and the return of the recalcitrant thing. Then Faina Georgievna proudly said that not a single spectator, despite the farce of the scene, laughed.
What can we say about the admiring audience! The phrase "Mulya, don't make me nervous!" not quoted only lazy. The film "Foundling" became Ranevskaya's nightmare: "mulky", crowds of fans followed her, including "pioneers". There was no rebound from them. Aleksey Tolstoy, who was friends with Faina Georgievna, called her talent "tart". "Why is this?" the actress asked. “But because it is absorbed like the smell of turpentine ...” Indeed, it is difficult to get rid of the charm of her bitter, “turpentine” gift.
Unfortunately, Ranevskaya never managed to get a role equivalent to her divine originality. The editorial board of the English encyclopedia "Who's Who" in 1992 included F. G. Ranevskaya in the top ten most prominent actresses of the 20th century. To understand the originality of Ranevskaya, it is enough to read some of her statements:
If a person has done evil to you - you give him candy, he gives you evil - you give him candy ... And so on until this creature develops diabetes.
Loneliness is when there is a telephone in the house, and the alarm clock rings.
My dear, if you want to lose weight - eat naked and in front of a mirror.
I lived with many theaters, but never enjoyed it.
Women are smarter than men. Have you ever heard of a woman who would lose her head just because a man has beautiful legs?
Ranevskaya was asked: “Which, in your opinion, women tend to be more faithful: brunettes or blondes?” Without hesitation, she replied: “Greys!”
Ranevskaya stood completely naked in her make-up room. And smoked. Suddenly, the managing director of the Mossovet Theater Valentin Shkolnikov entered without knocking. And froze in shock. Faina Georgievna calmly asked: “I hope I didn’t shock you by smoking Belomor?”
There are people in whom God lives; There are people in whom the devil lives; And there are people that live only worms.
To the question: “Are you sick, Faina Georgievna?” - she usually answered: "No, I just look like that."
Why do women devote so much time and money to their appearance and not the development of intelligence? - Because there are far fewer blind men than smart ones.
Copyright © 2018 Personal Qualities from A to Z copying information is allowed only with the permission of the author and a link to the source
The meaning of the word "uncommon"
"Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (Alabugin)", "Thesaurus of Russian Business Vocabulary", "Ozhegov's Dictionary".
What does the word "uncommon" mean?
* Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language (Alabugin)
Interpretation
Uncommon is:
Standing out among others, unusual, outstanding, rare.
* Outstanding musical ability. *
* Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary
Interpretation
Uncommon is:
Syn: exceptional (strengthened), extraordinary, outstanding, rare, rarest (strengthened), rare, outstanding, phenomenal (book, strengthened), unique (strengthened)
Ant: ordinary, ordinary, ordinary, banal
* Dictionary Ozhegov
Interpretation
Uncommon is:
OUTSTANDING, oh, oh; den, bottom. Unusual, standing out from others. Outstanding abilities.
* Dictionary of Efremova
Interpretation
Uncommon is:
Outstanding, standing out from others.
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Russian dictionaries
Lexical meaning: definition
The general stock of vocabulary (from the Greek Lexikos) is a complex of all the main semantic units of one language. The lexical meaning of a word reveals the generally accepted idea of an object, property, action, feeling, abstract phenomenon, impact, event, and the like. In other words, it defines what this concept in the public mind. As soon as an unknown phenomenon gains clarity, specific signs, or an awareness of an object arises, people assign it a name (sound-alphabetic shell), or rather, a lexical meaning. After that, it enters the dictionary of definitions with the interpretation of the content.
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There are so many words and highly specialized terms in each language that it is simply unrealistic to know all their interpretations. In the modern world, there are a lot of thematic reference books, encyclopedias, thesauri, glossaries. Let's go over their varieties:
- Explanatory You can find the meaning of a word in the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Each explanatory "article" of the interpreter interprets the desired concept on mother tongue, and considers its use in the content. (PS: You will read even more cases of word usage, but without explanations, in the National Corpus of the Russian Language. This is the largest database of written and oral texts of native speech.) Authored by Dal V.I., Ozhegov S.I., Ushakov D.N. . the most famous thesauri in our country with the interpretation of semantics have been published. Their only drawback is that the editions are old, so the lexical composition is not replenished.
- Encyclopedic Unlike explanatory, academic and encyclopedic online dictionaries provide a more complete, detailed explanation of the meaning. Large encyclopedic editions contain information about historical events, personalities, cultural aspects, artifacts. Encyclopedia articles tell about the realities of the past and broaden one's horizons. They can be universal or thematic, designed for a specific audience of users. For example, "The Lexicon of Financial Terms", "The Encyclopedia of Home Economics", "Philosophy. Encyclopedic glossary”, “Encyclopedia of fashion and clothing”, multilingual universal online encyclopedia “Wikipedia”.
- Industry These glossaries are intended for specialists in a specific field. Their goal is to explain professional terms, explanatory meaning of specific concepts of a narrow sphere, branches of science, business, industry. They are published in the format of a dictionary, a terminological reference book or a scientific reference manual (“Thesaurus on Advertising, Marketing and PR”, “Legal Reference Book”, “Terminology of the Ministry of Emergency Situations”).
- Etymological and Loanwords Etymological Dictionary is a linguistic encyclopedia. In it you will read versions of the origin of lexical meanings, from which the word was formed (original, borrowed), its morphemic composition, semasiology, time of appearance, historical changes, analysis. The lexicographer will establish where the vocabulary was borrowed from, consider subsequent semantic enrichments in the group of related word forms, as well as the scope of functioning. Gives options to use in a conversation. As a sample, the etymological and lexical analysis of the concept of "surname": borrowed from Latin (familia), where it meant a family nest, family, household. Since the 18th century, it has been used as a second personal name (inherited). Included in the active lexicon. The etymological dictionary also explains the origin of the subtext of catchphrases, phraseological units. Let's comment on the stable expression "genuine truth". It is interpreted as the absolute truth, the absolute truth. Do not believe it, during the etymological analysis it turned out that this idiom originates from the method of medieval torture. The defendant was beaten with a whip with a knot tied at the end, which was called "lin". Under the line, a man gave everything out, the real truth.
- Glossaries of obsolete vocabulary What is the difference between archaisms and historicisms? Some items consistently fall out of use. And then lexical definitions of units fall out of use. Words that describe phenomena and objects that have disappeared from life are referred to as historicisms. Examples of historicisms: camisole, musket, tsar, khan, buckets, political instructor, clerk, moshna, kokoshnik, khaldey, volost and others. Find out the meaning of words that are no longer used in oral speech, you will succeed from collections of obsolete phrases. Archaisms are words that have retained their essence by changing the terminology: piit - poet, forehead - forehead, ruble - ruble, overseas - foreign, fortecia - fortress, zemstvo - nationwide, tsvibak - biscuit shortcake, cookies. In other words, they were replaced by synonyms that are more relevant in modern reality. Old Slavonicisms fell into this category - vocabulary from Old Slavonic, close to Russian: hail (old Slavonic) - city (Russian), child - child, gate - gate, fingers - fingers, mouth - lips, drag - dragging legs. Archaisms are found in the circulation of writers, poets, in pseudo-historical and fantasy films.
- Translation, foreign Bilingual dictionaries for translating texts and words from one language to another. English-Russian, Spanish, German, French and others.
- Phraseological collection Phraseologisms are lexically stable phrases, with an indivisible structure and a certain subtext. These include sayings, proverbs, idioms, idioms, aphorisms. Some phrases migrated from legends and myths. They give the literary style artistic expressiveness. Phraseological turns are usually used in a figurative sense. Replacing any component, rearranging or breaking a phrase leads to a speech error, unrecognized subtext of the phrase, distortion of the essence when translated into other languages. Find the figurative meaning of such expressions in the phraseological dictionary. Examples of phraseological units: “In seventh heaven”, “The mosquito will not undermine the nose”, “Blue blood”, “Devil's lawyer”, “Burn bridges”, “Open secret”, “Looking into the water”, “Letting dust in the eyes”, “Working through the sleeves”, “Sword of Damocles”, “Gifts of the Danaans”, “Double-edged sword”, “Apple of discord”, “Heat your hands”, “Sisyphean labor”, “Climb the wall”, “Keep your eyes open”, “Throw beads in front of pigs”, “With a gulkin nose”, “Shot sparrow”, “Augean stables”, “Caliph for an hour”, “Puzzle”, “Do not look forward to souls”, “Clap your ears”, “Achilles heel”, “I ate the dog”, “Like water off a duck”, “Grasp the straw”, “Build castles in the air”, “Be in trend”, “Live like cheese in butter”.
- Definition of neologisms Language changes are stimulated by dynamic life. Humanity is striving for development, simplification of life, innovation, and this contributes to the emergence of new things, technology. Neologisms are lexical expressions of unfamiliar objects, new realities in people's lives, emerging concepts, phenomena. For example, what "barista" means is the profession of a coffee maker; a professional coffee maker who understands the varieties of coffee beans, knows how to beautifully arrange steaming cups with a drink before serving to a client. Each word was once a neologism, until it became commonly used, and did not enter the active vocabulary of the general literary language. Many of them disappear without even getting into active use. Neologisms are derivational, that is, absolutely newly formed (including from Anglicisms), and semantic. Semantic neologisms include already known lexical concepts endowed with fresh content, for example, “pirate” is not only a sea corsair, but also a copyright infringer, a user of torrent resources. Here are just some cases of word-building neologisms: life hack, meme, google, flash mob, casting director, pre-production, copywriting, friend, promote, moneymaker, screen, freelancing, headliner, blogger, downshifting, fake, brandalism. Another option, "copyrast" - the owner of the content or an ardent supporter of intellectual property rights.
- Other 177+ In addition to the above, there are thesauri: linguistic, in various areas of linguistics; dialect; linguistic and cultural; grammatical; linguistic terms; eponyms; decoding abbreviations; tourist vocabulary; slang. Schoolchildren will need lexical dictionaries with synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms and educational ones: spelling, punctuation, derivational, morphemic. Orthoepic reference book for setting stresses and correct literary pronunciation (phonetics). Toponymic reference dictionaries contain geographical information on regions and names. In anthroponymic - data on proper names, surnames, nicknames.
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extraordinary spelling word extraordinary spelling stress in the word extraordinary spelling of the word extraordinary
uncommon; cr. f. -den, -dna (outstanding)
extraordinary interpretation of the word extraordinary what does it mean
Uncommon, th, th; -den, -bottom. Unusual, standing out from others. Outstanding abilities.
noun uncommonness, and, well.
antonyms for uncommon
An ordinary nature is an extraordinary nature. Ordinary abilities - extraordinary abilities. An ordinary appearance is an extraordinary appearance. ○ If a person knows how to be the keeper of secrets - real, especially imaginary, . he already deserves to be the boss, and the head of the family, and an outstanding personality among ordinary personalities. Zalygin. ecological novel.
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SHATSKY
Pavel Andreevich
Object of study - Beethoven's piano variation cycles, their stylistic features; performing readings of these cycles, the conceptual specificity of the interpretations of outstanding pianists.
Identification and comparison of musicological and performing interpretations of these compositions is subject of study .
Objective – to explore the main patterns of the genre of piano variations of Beethoven and the interpretation of these compositions by outstanding musicians-performers.
Based on the named goals , it is supposed to solve the following tasks :
– to analyze the main compositional features (stages of genre evolution, the specifics of dramatic constructions, etc.) of Beethoven's piano variations;
– to consider and conduct a comparative analysis of the main research interpretations of these works, available in domestic and foreign musicological literature;
– to analyze the outstanding performing readings of Beethoven's most significant piano variation cycles;
– to clarify, based on the analysis of performing interpretations, the important dramatic features of Beethoven's large-scale piano variation cycles;
- to identify the degree of creative participation of performers in revealing the content of the work (from bright manifestations of a co-author's decision to the prevailing formal approach);
- define various ways building the dramaturgy of the work by the performer and combining each cycle into a single whole.
This focus of the dissertation requires a consistent consideration of both the works themselves and their interpretations. The domestic musical science has accumulated a great deal of experience in the comprehensive study of the phenomena of art. So, in the works of and, who summarized the scientific achievements of their predecessors and colleagues (, etc.), a method for a holistic analysis of musical works was developed. Substantiating this method, the researchers come to a conclusion that is of fundamental importance for this work: “... Since a musical work lives in real performance, information about the traditions of its performance, about various performance interpretations, is essential for understanding the work. it is important to analyze these interpretations(emphasis mine. - P. Sh.)».
In this work, first of all, the stylistic features of any cycle, as well as the history of its occurrence, are considered, various musicological interpretations of the form and content of the composition are compared. Further, the specifics of performing readings of the same cycle are revealed. The proportions between different angles of study may vary depending on the specific situation (the degree of study of one or another variational cycle, the measure of the diversity of performing interpretations of the same work, etc.). Nevertheless, the analysis of performances is a priority in this study, and the analysis of works and musicological interpretations, more or less detailed, is intended to create a certain basis and expand the field for a more complete consideration of the actual performance interpretations. The results show that the synthesis of both lines of study helps clarify, and in some cases re-evaluate the significance of individual patterns of Beethoven's composer creativity.
In this way, research methodology is based, first of all, on a set of methods for a holistic analysis of musical works and comparative analysis interpretations. Other methods are also used: musical-textological, systemic, comparative-historical (received in last years a more voluminous interpretation and the name "comparative studies").
The method of comparative analysis of interpretations was used (from different angles and on the material of various works) in the works of Rybnikova, Tinya, and others. Its elements are discretely present in many studies devoted to the work of performing musicians, but in this work, for the first time, it is given a fundamental role.
The analysis of performing concepts is also based on the scientific developments of representatives of the domestic science of musical performance. They touch upon a variety of issues, for example, the creative work of a pianist with an author's text (,), problems related to the classification of performing types and styles (K.-A. Martinsen, E. Fischer,), etc.
Research material are:
1) Beethoven Piano Variations (20 opuses in total). The following cycles are analyzed in detail as the most vividly revealing stylistic features of the composer's work: Six variations in F-dur op.34; Fifteen variations with fugue Es-dur op.35; 24 Variations on a Theme of Righini D-dur WoO 65; 32 Variations c-moll WoO 80; 33 Variations on a Waltz by Diabelli C-dur op. 120. In addition, it is these works that are currently presented the largest number highly artistic performance interpretations. Other variational cycles are considered episodically, as are those works in which variations, as a simple form, are part of a complex one.
2) Music editions of Beethoven's piano variations, including:
- urtext, critical editions (unspecified references to the musical text are given according to the edition: Beethoven L. van. Variationen fur Clavier. 2 bd. Herausgegeben von J. Schmidt-Görg. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1973);
– performing editions of Beethoven's piano variations;
– lifetime editions of Beethoven's variations, electronic copies of which are available on the official website of the Beethoven House in Bonn: www. beethoven-haus-bonn. de.
3) Deciphering sketches of Beethoven's variational cycles.
4) The epistolary legacy of the composer.
5) Materials of periodicals related to the appearance in print and the performance of Beethoven's piano variations.
6) Musicological and musical-critical works devoted to:
- the work of Beethoven;
- questions of variational form;
- Performing arts.
7) Numerous recordings of Beethoven's piano variations.
8) Monographic literature and works written in the genre of "performing portrait", which explore the work of outstanding pianists - interpreters of Beethoven's variations.
9) Literary (articles, letters, diary entries) and musical and pedagogical (editions, comments) heritage of outstanding performers.
Audio and video recordings of Beethoven's variations, carried out by outstanding musicians, constitute a significant source base of research. The author studied 164 recordings, which recorded the performances of such outstanding pianists as (in alphabetical order) G. Anda, K. Arrau, V. Backhaus, D. Barenboim, A. Brendel, W. Horowitz, G. Gould, F. Gould , W. Kempf, R. Lupu, E. Ney, J. Ogdon, R. Serkin, A. Fischer, D. Ziffra, D. Ciani, A. Schnabel, .
The reference to the recordings of Beethoven's variational cycles imposes certain restrictions on the period of time covered in this work. Chronologically, the lower boundary denotes the record (1925), the upper one corresponds to our time.
The source study base for the study of interpretations of Beethoven's piano variation cycles has an additional group of materials in the work that expand the temporal s e boundaries of the period covered. We are talking about performing editions of the named compositions, performed by outstanding musicians of the 19th-20th centuries, of which the interpreter editions of G. von Bülow and A. Schnabel should be specially noted. In addition to considering the compositional structure of the cycles and the recommendations of the performing editor regarding the performance of a particular fragment, these editions also reflect more general stylistic phenomena in piano performance as a whole.
Scientific novelty research consists in the systematic coverage of all components of the stated topic. The presented dissertation is the first special, comprehensive study in which the main genre features of Beethoven's piano variations are studied and generalized in such detail and their outstanding interpretations are considered in detail (using bar-by-bar performance analysis).
In the direction of musicological analysis, a number of important clarifications have been made, mainly summarizing the experience of comparative characterization of interpretations. The genre features of each variation from the Six Variations cycle op.34 are specified. The idea of the role of polyphony in the cycles of the "new manner" is supplemented. The first attempt of its kind to consider the compositional structure of 24 Variations on the theme of Righini WoO 65 is given. A table of motive-intonation connections discovered by the researcher in the cycle of 32 Variations on the theme of WoO 80 is given.
In addition, for the first time, translations of research materials by V. von Lenz, J. Ude, A. Brendel and V. Kinderman concerning the characterization and analysis of 33 Variations on a theme by A. Diabelli op.120 are introduced into scientific circulation in Russian.
The following provisions are put forward for defense:
- the compositional features of Beethoven's piano variations create the prerequisites for the multiplicity of their performing interpretations;
– the genre evolution of Beethoven's piano variations directly causes a change in the priority tasks associated with their performance. A particularly striking example is the variations op.34 and op.35, the creation of which Beethoven associated with the manifestation of a “new manner” of composition;
– outstanding performing readings of Beethoven's piano variations make it possible to clarify many features of the dramaturgy of these compositions;
– some performers (namely: S. Richter, G. Gould, M. Pletnev and A. Brendel), presented in this work by several interpretations, reveal features of an individual approach, characteristic only for each of them, to the performance of Beethoven's variations.
Approbation of the study
The work was carried out and discussed at meetings of the Department of History and Theory of Performing Arts of the Moscow State Conservatory. .
Theoretical and practical significance of the research
The dissertation materials can be used in the work of pianists and teachers in the special piano class, in lecture courses on the history of foreign music, the history of piano art, and methods of teaching piano. The methodology for analyzing the features of piano performance based on the source study of audio and video recordings can be applied when studying problems of performance on other instruments.
Thesis structure
The dissertation consists of an Introduction, four chapters, a Conclusion, a List of References, a List of Audio and Video Recordings of Interpretations used, and an Appendix containing an analysis of motive-intonational connections in Beethoven's 32 Variations c-moll WoO 80.
II. The main content of the work
ChapterI. First experiences.Features of early piano variations and the emergence of a "new manner".
Six variations in F-dur op.34 and problems of their interpretation.
At the beginning of this chapter, the initial stage of the development of the genre of piano variations by Beethoven before the creation of op.34 is briefly covered. On the example of early compositions (Thirteen Variations on a Theme by C. Dittersdorf WoO 66, Nine Variations on a Theme by G. Paisiello A-dur WoO 69, Ten Variations on a Theme by A. Salieri B-dur WoO 73, etc.), the emergence of compositional features that anticipate new interpretation of the variational cycle. This is reflected in the individualization of the genre basis and thematic material of each variation, in the use of polyphonic methods of development and in the increase in the dramatic load in the finals of the cycles.
An important regularity in Beethoven's comprehension of the variational form in that period is noted, saying that "the ornament begins to turn from a means of decoration into a means of thematic development." He also draws attention to the fact that Beethoven began to create an independent cycle on his own theme only after carrying out a huge preparatory work on composing variations on themes of other authors. From this follows the conclusion that the interest of the composer, like none of his predecessors, was caused not only by the variation genre itself, but by variation as a principle of artistic thinking. It is in Beethoven's work that it is clearly seen for the first time that “variation is an all-pervasive phenomenon.<…>It encompasses everything that is connected with altered repetition, ranging from variance to complex types of derivativeness ”and therefore can be used in works of any genre and length, which is observed, for example, in the composer’s later opuses. An important stage on this path was the cycles of variations op.34, op.35. That is why it is far from accidental, having finished them, Beethoven informs the publisher Breitkopf & Hä rtel in a letter on October 18, 1802: “I wrote two works in the form of variations ... Usually one hears from others that I have new ideas, while I myself do not know this, but this time I can assure you that in both works I applied a completely new manner." When the variations were going out of print the following year, 1803, the composer prefaced them with a preface, which also stated that they were distinguished by a completely new manner. The fact that these variational cycles occupied a special position with him is evidenced by the fact that they received opus numbers 34 and 35, while all previously created ones remained with the author without indicating opus numbers.
The "new manner" and the new compositional style of Beethoven are multifaceted phenomena. In the cycles op.34 and op.35 they reveal themselves in different ways, so both works are considered separately in the dissertation.
The most important feature compositional construction op.34, which allows us to speak of a "new manner" and is the first such example in the history of variations, a milestone for their historical development as a whole, lies in the fact that a new type of free variation is presented here. Before us is no longer the coloring of one image embedded in the theme, but the disclosure and combination of several images throughout the cycle, which is embodied in the underlined change in the genre inclination of each variation.
From now on, the variational cycle poses somewhat different tasks for the performers than before: the presence of brightly drawn out diverse images conceals the danger of reading it as a suite. The pianist must not only show their contrast, but reveal their unity in the process of dramatic development when changing the genre mood and meter in each new variation. Both Mozart and Beethoven introduced separate "genre variations" into the variation cycles, but never before Beethoven's opus 34 did the genre side of the variation cycle undergo such active development.
To confirm this, there are detailed specifications each of the variations. In addition, other important aspects of the compositional structure of the cycle are considered: the features of the suite, as a form of the second plan, and the features of dramaturgy associated with them, the concentric tonal plan and its formative significance.
It is important that these and other properties of the composition determine the multiplicity of its performing interpretations.
For the analysis of interpretations, records were selected: A. Brendel (), S. Richter (1970), G. Gould (1970), M. Pletnev (1997). The author of the dissertation conducts a detailed analysis of the theme and each variation performed by the named pianists.
The difference in time intervals by which the pianists separate the variations is preliminarily noted. In Richter's performance, they are separated from each other by small identical pauses. In Gould's video, the camera shutter closes between variations for exactly the same number of seconds. Pletnev performs transitions between all variations of attacca (perhaps this is somewhat contrary to the author's intention, which fixes exactly where he considers it necessary to perform variations in a row). The pauses in Brendel's performance are also uniform, only he combines the variations in pairs.
A detailed analysis of the interpretations of these performers, which carefully traces the use by the musicians of the entire complex of performing expressive means (dynamics, tempo, agogics, articulation, phrasing, identification of certain layers of musical texture, etc.), allows us to generally characterize them as follows.
Brendel presents the cycle mainly in a lyrical vein. Moreover, the lyrics in his interpretation are presented in the most "positive" emotional spectrum, not overshadowed by shades of melancholy or sorrow, as, for example, in Pletnev's recording. In relation to the composition he performs, Brendel, of course, positions himself as a pianist-performer, and not a pianist-co-author. His style of performance can be called "the art of the golden mean." The individual character of each of the variations is nowhere carried to the extreme. This concerns, first of all, tempo, dynamics (especially its maximum values) and, as a result, the figurative sphere, which is not overloaded with sharply conflicting content.
Richter, like Brendel, considered himself a musician - an executor of the will of the author. In his playing, the ability to "read notes" turned into a service to the composer. However, by nature, he was a maximalist performer, striving to elevate his understanding of music to the category absolute truth which he often wrote about in his diaries. In the interpretation of Richter, the heroic principle dominates, which is not typical for the records of this cycle. The cycle is built along the line of gradual sharpening of contrasts. Moreover, if in Brendel we hear “contrasts of states”, then in Richter they are perceived as “contrasts of actions”. The figurative sphere of lyrics bears the features of strict nobility and is not as developed as the heroic pole.
Gould's approach to performance is diametrically opposed - his interpretations are often highly subjective. In his opinion, repeatedly expressed publicly, performing a well-known work, the musician should do it as if he had never heard it before, and if a truly original and unexpected interpretation is born, it must be recorded at all costs. The originality in Gould's recording lies, first of all, in the "polyphonic style" of performance, which is laid down in the theme and is most clearly manifested in Var. I, III, VI and in the final, perceived as the apotheosis of the theme. What is unique is that the typically homophonic texture turns out to be polyphonically saturated, and not only that which contains a hint of latent polyphony, as, say, in Var. III. At the same time, the performance of the Canadian pianist can least of all be called speculative. It is, for example, much less "reflexive in spirit" than Brendel's and Pletnev's recordings. In general, in Gould's interpretation, there is a delicate balance between the traditional and the uniquely individual.
A balance of this kind is also present in Mikhail Pletnev's recording, however, the components of this balance of power are somewhat different. First of all, it is necessary to note the special integrity of the performing construction of the form. This concerns the general plan of dramaturgy, where Var IV (march) is a watershed, on both sides of which there are three major variations (the finale can be considered another variation). This also applies to each individual variation, where rubato becomes the most important principle of performing form formation, revealing, on the one hand, the natural, “speech” asymmetry of phrases, and on the other hand, emphasizing the balance of periods as part of a simple tripartite form of the theme. Compared to Brendel or Gould, Pletnev plays a lot non legato, uses the finest gradations of dynamics from mf and quieter, which contributes to the lightness, transparency of the sound of the texture. In the figurative sphere of this interpretation, there is a desire for the bizarre, ambiguous, for “unexpected angles”, combined with a special contemplative lyricism and narrative.
With all the variety of these performance interpretations, they have one fundamental similarity. In each, there is a noticeable tendency to perceive the cycle as a suite of miniatures. Uniform pauses between variations are one of the evidences of this perception, born, of course, of the compositional properties of the composition.
ChapterII. The development of a "new manner".
Fifteen variations (with fugue) op.35
and questions of their performing interpretation.
This chapter discusses a range of issues related to the peculiarities of the structure of the cycle, the appeal to polyphonic genres, the originality in the use of thematic material ( theme and Basso del theme), developed in parallel in a number of other works (the finale of the ballet Prometheus, Twelve country dances for orchestra WoO 14, the finale of the Third Symphony).
Unlike the Six Variations op.34, the main feature of the composer's idea of the Fifteen Variations op.35 is the through development of the musical idea throughout all parts of the composition. sees this overcoming isolation variational forms, which should probably be understood as overcoming the isolation of individual variations. However, it must be added that a lot of effort was spent by the composer in order to overcome openness of form, inherent in variations. The completeness of the dramatic profile of the cycle is prepared and emphasized by the composer in various ways. It is for this purpose that the fugue is introduced, which is the most important means of cementing compositional unity. In addition, thanks to such an active use of polyphony, Beethoven significantly expanded the boundaries of the artistic content of variations, raised them to a higher level in the genre hierarchy in comparison with the modest place that they occupied in the era of Viennese classicism. In this regard, the work outlines the process of gradual strengthening of the role of polyphonic forms and methods of polyphonic development in the work of J. Haydn and L. van Beethoven. In their musical heritage, the author traced all the examples of the inclusion of variations as a simple form in the composition of sonata-symphonic cycles.
Surprisingly, the performing interpretations of the op.35 cycle do not contain such a variety of readings as one can find in the interpretations of op.34. If we compare the recordings of A. Brendel, W. Kempf, E. Gilels and S. Richter, one can not only catch the similarity in them, but even determine the general direction of the development of their artistic concepts. Perhaps this is partly due to the fact that the recordings in question were made over a relatively short period of time, limited to two decades, so they belong to the same era, the same type of performing perception. However, the compositional intention of the author plays an important role here, which, apparently, does not imply such a performance bringing, as it was in the "small" cycle. So, in the construction of the dramaturgy of the whole, the named pianists have almost complete identity. Variations are combined into three large blocks: the first - from the Introduction to Var. XIII inclusive, the second - Var. XIV-XV, third - fugue and finale.
Considering each block of variations separately, one more conclusion can be drawn: the first of them contains the most variants of performing constructions, which is again due to the artistic and compositional features of the composition.
An analysis of a large number of recordings, and not only those mentioned above, also allows us to say that, with all the variety of interpretations, their creators generally adhere to a common understanding of the figurative content of the work.
For a detailed analysis of performing interpretations, the work selected records by S. Richter (1970), E. Gilels (1982), A. Brendel () and G. Gould (1970). According to the performing style, this series is divided into two unequal groups: the first three recordings and the performance of G. Gould. In the first case, we have examples of musical academism at its best: positioning the performer as a “conductor of the composer's will”, carefully treating the author's text. As for the interpretation of the Canadian pianist, he strives, first of all, to convey his individual performance and, for the sake of its realization, operates with details at his own discretion. Actually, there are no textological changes in Gould's playing, however, he significantly changes the architectonics of the composition, not observing the author's principle of reprise repetitions of parts.
The main feature of Richter's interpretation is the combination of the scale of the performing dramaturgy and the deep figurative-philosophical and psychological content of each variation.
Gilels' performing attention is focused not so much on the philosophical as on the active-effective side of the overall process, which forms a specific holistic figurative atmosphere of the composition being played, subordinating all expressive performing means to it.
The analysis of A. Brendel's recording is preceded in the work by the translation of his comments to op.35 from the book “Music Sounded Out” (London, 1995). The pianist draws attention to the unusually vivid contrasts that arise in the process of varying the cycle, and notes that very often such sudden comparisons transfer the artistic content into the realm of the comic and grotesque. This comment can be prefaced as an epigraph to Brendel's entry, since he really carefully builds a line of contrasts both within individual variations and between them, due to which his interpretation has a pronounced theatrical character.
In all interpretations, of course, the overall color of the sound is indicative. Richter and Gilels "voice" the musical fabric mainly as a piano, and Brendel, probably, focuses on orchestral and operatic colors. It is difficult to say which style of playing - "piano" or "orchestral" - more adequately reflects the author's intention. On the one hand, Brendel's sound palette seems to be generally more diverse. On the other hand, “timbre detailing” leads to chamber sounding. Richter's climactic constructions are sharper along the dynamic profile.
Glenn Gould's interpretation touches upon a number of serious problems of contemporary performance. The pianist, as already noted, changes the "reprise plan" of the composition. He repeats both sentences only in the implementation of the bass theme, and also in the Theme, Var. IV, V, VI, VIII and in Var. XIV-XV, where repetitions are written out. In other cases, repetitions are either released at all (Var. I, III, IX, X, XIII), or only one is repeated, most often the first sentence. For most performances, the cycle is shortened by the Canadian pianist by almost 4 minutes, which is about a quarter of the time of a normal performance.
As far as one can judge from the available recordings, none of the pianists dared to do such a thing, since many of them believe that failure to perform repetitions is a “sabotage” of the author's will and inevitably leads to the destruction of the form of the composition. However, the tradition of the past allowed the performing musician to choose which variation to play and which to skip, and the same choice was with regard to the reprise. As a few, but in our own way convincing, examples of such practice, we can cite the first part of Mozart's Sonata KV 331 in Rachmaninov's recording and Brahms' Variations on a Theme of Paganini in the recordings of V. Backhaus and A. Benedetti-Michelangeli. Thus, the performer could build the dramaturgy of the cycle at his own discretion.
The changes introduced by Gould are subject to one artistic idea comparison of two topoi - heroic and lyrical. In the "lyrical variations" deep, even slightly exalted expression dominates, in the "heroic" - a kind of impulsive mobility. As a result, by “compressing” the thematic material and sharpening the contrasts (by eliminating repetitions), the pianist achieves a dual goal: creating a continuity in the development of dramaturgy and revealing bright, conflicting drama in it.
In general, speaking about the peculiarities of the performance by modern pianists of the Fifteen Variations with Fugue op.35, we can note the tradition that exists today. It goes back in its foundation to the author's intention, since the gradual development of the theme from an exquisite, but chamber country dance to a triumphant, jubilant apotheosis is embedded in the dramaturgy of the cycle. And this general line is not subject to rethinking by the performers. Nevertheless, despite the general similarity of the artistic concept, the interpretations of outstanding performers undoubtedly have their own characteristic, recognizable features, their own unique features, that is, they successfully combine the "author's will" and the individuality of the performer.
ChapterIII. In line with tradition.
24 Variations on a Theme of Rigini D-dur (WoO 65).
32 Variations on an original c-moll theme (WoO 80) .
Musicological and performing interpretations .
These two cycles are much closer to the strict style of variations than op.34 and op.35, however, in our opinion, they deserve separate consideration.
The section on 24 Variations on the theme of Righini in D-dur (WoO 65) begins with a description of the borrowed theme of the cycle and the features of its variation. From the point of view of melodicism, it is not too individualized, as it is not marked by either memorable melodic turns or exquisite harmonization. According to the classification, the topic unconditionally belongs to the category of “generalized topics”. There are only general contours of the melodic line and the simplest harmonic basis (with a characteristic retention of the dominant third in the final cadence). Such a somewhat schematic structure of the theme "lays" great opportunities for further variation, because in this process the author has a chance to introduce both bright melody and fresh harmonies, thereby demonstrating his mastery.
The compositional features of the cycle are noted, on the basis of which it is defined as an intermediate type between classical variations and variations of the “new manner”. Its structure (with a large expansion of the two final variations) can be considered a sketch for both the Fifteen Variations with Fugue and the 33 Variations on a Waltz by Diabelli. However, unlike these two more mature cycles, it does not have such a convincing unifying dramaturgical line. Because of this, there is an apparent disproportion in the scale of the two final variations to the previous section, which becomes the main problem in its interpretation. Options for solving this problem are considered on the examples of the interpretations of the cycle by A. Brendel () and M. Pletnev (1997). Various options for constructing a performing form are fixed: the actual variation cycle with a bright final climax by Brendel and the variation cycle with sonata features as a form of the second plan by Pletnev.
Based on the material of these records, the question is raised different attitude musicians to an interpreted composition: either from the prevailing subjective positions, or from the positions of the most objective. The principle of conflict-free dramaturgy of the cycle is also discussed as possible reason his performance unpopularity.
32 Variations on an original c-moll theme (WoO 80) are certainly strict. They have features of the chaconne and passacaglia, as the oldest varieties of this type of variation, which already in Beethoven's time could be considered archaic.
Various interpretations of the structure and dramaturgy of the cycle contained in the works of musicologists (O. Clauwel, P. Mies, etc.) and performers (G. von Bülow) are analyzed. On the basis of their study, a variant of the internal grouping of cycle variations, developed by the author of the dissertation, is presented.
The relative pianistic accessibility of this work, combined with its vivid artistic content, made it the most performed among the composer's other variation cycles. A detailed performance analysis of the work is given on the example of interpretations (1925), V. Horowitz (1935), A. Brendel (), G. Gould (1966).
In connection with the recording of Rachmaninov, possible objective and subjective reasons are discussed that prompted the performer to undertake a shortening of the cycle. Peculiarities of Rachmaninov's compositional construction, formed as a result of this reduction, are considered.
Based on a comparison of a large number of different interpretations of the cycle, it is concluded that the performing dramaturgy of the 32 Variations essentially depends on what the pianist is more inclined to - to the statics of the variational form of strict variations or to the dynamism of the developmental development contained in them.
ChapterIV. On the top. 33 Variations on a Waltz by Diabelli, op.120.
Musicological and performing readings.
This Beethoven cycle especially often attracted the attention of researchers and performers (G. von Bülow, W. von Lenz, A. Schnabel, V. Kinderman, A. Brendel, etc.), who reflected on its various features: figurative structure, style, history creation and composition, means of dramaturgy and variants of its performing interpretation. The work compares and analyzes those provisions contained in well-known publications, which have the necessary basis for understanding the problems of interpreting this work, parallels with other works of this genre are noted.
For the first time in Russian, a table by V. Kinderman is given, based on his study and interpretation of Beethoven's sketches for the cycle. Various interpretations of the figurative structure of individual variations are given (lists of titles by V. von Lenz, J. Ude, V. Kinderman and A. Brendel), their internal grouping.
The analysis of performing readings of the work helps to clarify the features of its composition. So, in the previously mentioned dissertation work"The internal structure of the variational cycle and its artistic significance" states (probably based on the calculation of the total number of bars of the composition) that Var. XX is located at the point of the "golden section". In real performance (and this is confirmed by all the records we listened to) Var. XX is almost exactly in the middle of the total playing time of the entire cycle.
Interpretations by A. Schnabel, D. Barenboim, A. Brendel are analyzed. Just like in the previous chapter, the main emphasis is on considering the problem of the integrity of interpretation (as one of the central ones in the performance of such a large-scale composition) and studying the ways to solve it, which are contained in the interpretations of the listed pianists. Their interpretations are also analyzed from the point of view of the figurative structure, the grouping of variations, and the construction of a common dramatic line of development.
Artur Schnabel's performance of the cycle is historically the earliest surviving on record (1937). Many characteristic features of the pianist's performing appearance are vividly embodied in it, which are in harmony with Beethoven's late style. In the spirit of integral performing dramaturgy, the pianist reveals a special understanding of one of its most important elements - contrast. Contrasting elements (without losing their individual character) form a single harmonious whole, despite the opposition of individual variations or sections within one of them. As a result, the emotional palette seems unusually capacious precisely because of its extraordinary diversity. In addition, the direct, sincere emotionality in the playing of the Austrian pianist is perceived, as it were, in the faceting of a large internal culture, which gives his performing appearance the character of genuine aristocracy. Schnabel is alien to an overly intellectualized approach to performance, but also to expressive, unbridled emotionality, which brings contrasts to the feeling of "boundary zones of consciousness", as we hear it in D. Barenboim's recording. It is impossible not to note Schnabel's careful attitude to dynamics, when the beauty of sound always remains a priority quality.
Richter's performances are captured in several recordings. The paper analyzes the earliest of them (from a concert in Moscow on January 29, 1951), since, in our opinion, it more fully reflects the originality of the pianist's performing style. Distinctive feature its interpretations define the features of bright conflict drama, which is not typical for performing readings (interpretations in the spirit of intellectual, reflective lyrics, combined with emphasized, somewhat grotesque comedy) of this cycle are not typical.
From the point of view of the performing form, Richter's reading has a very clear internal construction. It is divided into several blocks, in each of them a climax is clearly marked, which is the result of a noticeable dynamic increase. One gets the impression that Richter seeks to introduce into the interpretation of a work written in variational form the drama and continuity of thematic development inherent in Beethoven's symphonism.
If, in relation to many interpretations, one can speak of a “two-headed peak” of the cycle, then in Richter’s reading, the peak has one peak, and this is Fugue. Dramatic weight of minor Var. XXIX-XXXI and the final Minuet in Richter's interpretation is incomparably less than the one they acquire in the playing of Schnabel, Sokolov, Brendel and many other pianists. The overall picture of sharpened dynamism and the striving of its interpretation is supplemented by perhaps the highest indicator of the average tempo in comparison with the listed performers. The bias towards the active-effective side of figurative content leads to the fact that the lyrical sphere perceptibly recedes into the background in Richter's interpretation.
More clearly than other artists, in the sound of the cycle, Richter shows the features of classical variations, which, along with bold innovation, are certainly present in this opus. While most performers emphasize the "departure from the theme" that occurs in the process of variation, Richter keeps the connection of each variation with the theme in the focus of relentless attention. Their commonality is expressed in the hidden danceability and strict organization of the performing rhythm, which does not imply large agogic deviations. The latter is especially characteristic of lyrical variations.
One gets the general impression that Richter cares much more about the harmony of the performing form of the whole than about the details. He is interested not so much in the filigree finish of each variation, but in the brightness and persuasiveness of building the overall dramaturgy of the work. The cycle in his interpretation acquires compositional harmony and ease of perception - qualities that are perhaps the most valuable in the performance of works of such a significant scale. This artistic result is largely achieved thanks to the manifestations of indomitable temperament and the great inner conviction with which the artist embodies his plan.
G. Sokolov's recording (concert in St. Petersburg, 1985) occupies a special place in the voluminous list of interpretations of 33 Variations. His performance gives the impression of the Mozartian ease of deployment and almost unpredictable improvisation, the continuity of the very process of making music.
Such an illusion of spontaneity is combined with another important quality - an infinitely deep immersion in the world of each variation, the desire to convey the rich content of each of them as fully as possible. Such harmony of the "micro- and macro-worlds" of the composition allows the artist to build extended dramatic lines and saves the performance as a whole from excessive fragmentation. This is seen as similar to Schnabel's interpretation.
Sokolov is attentive to the initial implementation of the theme, which many pianists perceive as some kind of bizarre exhibit of the musical cabinet of curiosities. It is sometimes played harshly and aggressively, deliberately primitive in phrasing. Sokolov, on the other hand, emphasizes its two main properties: on the one hand, gallantry (it is heard in the title motive of each sentence and in their cadenza endings), on the other hand, a powerful impulse of the dance movement that literally breaks through from the repetitive chords.
In Sokolov's performance of many variations of the virtuoso plan, the combination of fast tempos, articulatory clarity and natural phrasing is especially impressive. The pianist achieves no less effect in slow, lyrical fragments, in which he demonstrates outstanding mastery of playing time.
If Sokolov's performance is marked by smooth internal transitions, then D. Barenboim's interpretation is built on the opposite principle - contrast. It is sharpened to the point of grotesque already in the topic itself. In her reading, a frantic danceability is manifested, which is fundamentally different from the neutral character that we hear in the performance of Schnabel and Sokolov. Even Richter's performance, with its impulsive energy, seems more emotionally balanced in comparison to Barenboim's performance.
An even greater impression of the grotesque (thanks to the chanting of ponderous iambic phrases) is introduced by Var. I. In general, an impersonal character - in the most inhumane sense of the word - appears very often in Barenboim's interpretation, which is reflected, in particular, in the sound picture. It sometimes turns out to be almost naturalistic, especially with regard to loudness. Such a performance has a profound effect on the listener, as it directly appeals to his subconscious emotionality. And yet, it can frankly shock those who are accustomed to perceive the art of music from a more intellectual position.
Lyrical variations are also marked by a specific figurative structure: moods of detachment and apathy, unusual for other interpretations, are manifested in them. Barenboim's extremely slow tempos, which are not always maintained until the end of the variation, are often controversial.
Before turning to the study of Brendel's interpretation, the author of the dissertation examines his essay, in which the pianist analyzes the theme, variations and provides them with headings. Actually, there are even two such lists of titles. Explaining the first of them, the pianist writes that he can imagine variations expressed in the four "classical elements": earth, fire, water, air. Probably, these are the figurative associations that helped the pianist in creating his own musical interpretation. The work is noted as general points, and different between verbal "portraits" of 33 Variations and sound embodiments in Brendel's recording. His interpretation has a clearly defined structure, in which the last five variations form the closing and most important stage in the development of performing dramaturgy. The dominant position of the last block of variations is determined not by the expansion of the boundaries of dynamics or tempo, but, first of all, by the depth of figurative comprehension.
At the same time, Brendel's performance sometimes remains very restrained emotionally. Moreover, it is in this aspect that there is a cardinal divergence of the characters of his musical performance and his own literary program, in which the pianist speaks of a huge variety of mental states contained in the composition, and that op.120 seems to him in the broadest sense of the word a comic composition. The foregoing does not detract from the overall artistic merit of Brendel's recording.
Comparison and analysis of various interpretations of op.120 leads to the following conclusion: each of them bears the stamp of a bright artistic individuality of the performer. Examples of great diversity in the construction of performing dramaturgy eloquently prove that it is far from rigidly determined by the compositional features of the work.
AT Conclusion the results of the study are summed up. It is concluded that the compositional features of Beethoven's piano variations create very favorable conditions for the multiplicity of their performing readings.
It is noted that the genre evolution of the compositions under consideration is directly reflected in the priority tasks associated with their performance. So, with the advent of the “new manner”, the boundaries of performing introduction are significantly expanded. The individualized nature of each variation and the sharp contrast of their comparison allow the performer to reveal more subtle facets of his creative world, expand the coordinates of the figurative-emotional dimension, and deepen the psychological content of the interpretation. An opportunity is provided for a more diverse and large-scale construction of performing dramaturgy, in particular, its culminating zones.
A summarizing conclusion is made about the extreme importance of considering performing readings for studying the features of the compositional structure of Beethoven's piano variations.
The generalizing characteristics of musicians-performers are given, whose interpretations have been repeatedly considered in this work. It is noted that piano performance develops in line with general trends evolution of musical art. The continuation of individual traditions of the 19th century (first of all, romanticism) is adjacent to the new creative searches of the 20th century. Each of the pianists who form a specific performance concept, using the entire arsenal of artistic means to convey it, chooses his own angles in it, conducts his own dialogue with historical memory, traditions and culture of the past, in his own way determines their place in the present.
1. Piano Variations op.34 by Beethoven: "New Manner" of Composition and Performing Readings // Academy of Music, 2011, No. 2, pp. 95–100 (0.9 p. sheet).
Publications in other publications
2. On the performance of 32 variations by Rachmaninov, A. Brendel and G. Gould (to work on the integrity of interpretation) // Issues of improving the professional training of a teacher-musician: Collection of scientific papers. Issue 14. Moscow, Moscow State Pedagogical University, 2008, pp. 95-101 (0.4 p. sheet).
3. School of Piano Variations: Twenty-Four Variations on the Theme of Rigini in the Work of a Pianist // Issues of Improving the Professional Training of a Musician Teacher: Collection of Scientific Papers. Issue 16. Moscow, Moscow State Pedagogical University, 2011, pp. 76–84 (0.7 p. sheet).
4. Thirty-three variations of Beethoven on the theme of A. Diabelli in the interpretation of G. Sokolov (to the problem of the integrity of the performing form) // Questions of teaching methods of musical performing and theoretical disciplines: Interuniversity collection of scientific papers. Issue 9. Moscow, Moscow State Pedagogical University, 2011, pp. 51–56 (0.4 p. sheet).
Signed for print: 16.01.2012
Circulation 100 copies.
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Beethoven's sketch book over the years. Research and decoding. M., 1962. S.59.
Zaderatsky V.AT. musical form. Issue. 1. M., 1995. P. 405.
Cit. on: Beethoven's book of sketches for the years 1802–1803. P.55.
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