Truth and its types in social science. Reasons for the relativity of truth. Absolute truth. Examples and features
Through the senses, thinking, as well as with the help of intuition and emotions, a person in the course of the cognitive process acquires knowledge about objects and relationships. But this knowledge can be both true and false.
True- this is the correspondence of the received knowledge to reality, such a reflection of the object by the cognizing subject, in which cognitive object reproduced as it exists on its own, outside of consciousness. Or in other words: truth is the correspondence of ideas or statements to the real state of affairs. The concept of "truth" is complex and multifaceted.
Since a person cannot always know the truth in full (for example, reflecting quantum mechanical or socio-historical processes) and his knowledge is limited to this particular moment, such truth is called relative. Relative truth is limited true knowledge about something. Over time, relative truth may become a special case. general rule or even be misleading. Relative truths make up absolute truth. Absolute truth is complete, exhaustive knowledge about a complex object. The content of truth is constantly expanding, being refined, so the process of cognition is endless.
Not all truth is absolute and final. There are not many such truths. There are much more relative truths.
How, then, to distinguish truth from error, from erroneous conclusions, which often take place in the process of cognition?
There is a point of view that knowledge is true only when it is consistent, logically coherent, that is, consistent with the existing system of views.
Another criterion of truth is the recognition as true of that which is useful to man.
These points of view characterize the properties that one would like to discover in true knowledge. However, critics of the stated views point out that not every logically coherent theory is true and, on the contrary, knowledge that does not bring direct benefit may turn out to be true.
Practice is considered a more reliable criterion of truth. If, for example, a nuclear power plant, created on the basis of a certain physical theory, produces electricity, then this theory is true. But this point of view is criticized: practice does not cover the entire real world, moreover, the practical confirmation of any theory may not happen immediately, but after many years, but this does not mean that this theory is not true. Therefore, the idea of complementarity is put forward in philosophy: the leading criterion of truth is practice, which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment, is supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.
Statements that are not true are either misleading or false. If a delusion- this is the content of knowledge that does not correspond to reality, but is mistaken for true, then False- this is a distortion of the actual state of affairs, with the aim of introducing someone into deception. From the point of view of morality, error is a conscientious untruth, and deceit is dishonest.
Truth is manifested specifically in each field of knowledge. In historical research it will be different than, for example, in chemistry or literary criticism. In the mathematical sciences, the substantiation of propositions always ends with a theoretical proof: the theory directly acts as a criterion for the truth of these propositions. The truth is also specific in a judicial investigation, where it is often difficult to get to it, examining many hypotheses, facts, data obtained by experts, testimonies.
In many ways, the problem of the reliability of our knowledge about the world is determined by the answer to the fundamental question of the theory of knowledge: "What is truth?"
1. In the history of philosophy, there were different views on the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge:
Empiricism - all knowledge about the world is justified only by experience (F. Bacon)
Sensationalism - only with the help of sensations you can know the world (D. Hume)
Rationalism - reliable knowledge can only be gleaned from the mind itself (R. Descartes)
Agnosticism - "thing in itself" is unknowable (I. Kant)
Skepticism - it is impossible to obtain reliable knowledge about the world (M. Montaigne)
True there is a process, and not a one-time act of comprehending the object immediately in full.
Truth is one, but objective, absolute and relative aspects are distinguished in it, which can also be considered as relatively independent truths.
objective truth- this is the content of knowledge that does not depend on man or on humanity.
absolute truth- this is exhaustive reliable knowledge about nature, man and society; knowledge that can never be refuted.
Relative truth- this is incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways of obtaining this knowledge; it is knowledge that depends on certain conditions, place and time of its receipt.
The difference between absolute and relative truth (or absolute and relative in objective truth) is in the degree of accuracy and completeness of the reflection of reality. Truth is always concrete, it is always associated with a certain place, time and circumstances.
Not everything in our lives can be judged in terms of truth or error (falsehood). So, we can talk about different assessments historical events, alternative interpretations of works of art, etc.
2. Truth- this is knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it. Other definitions:
1. correspondence of knowledge to reality;
2. what is confirmed by experience;
3. some agreement, convention;
4. property of self-consistency of knowledge;
5. the usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice.
Aspects of truth:
3. Criteria of truth- that which certifies the truth and makes it possible to distinguish it from error.
1. compliance with the laws of logic;
2. compliance with previously discovered laws of science;
3. compliance with fundamental laws;
4. simplicity, economy of the formula;
5. paradoxical idea;
6. practice.
4. Practice- an integral organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at transforming reality carried out in a certain socio-cultural context.
Forms practices:
1. material production (labor, transformation of nature);
2. social action (revolutions, reforms, wars, etc.);
3. scientific experiment.
Functions practices:
1. source of knowledge (practical needs brought to life the sciences that exist today.);
2. the basis of knowledge (a person does not just observe or contemplate the world, but in the course of its life activity it transforms it);
3. the purpose of cognition (for this purpose, a person cognizes the world around him, reveals the laws of its development in order to use the results of cognition in his practical activities);
4. the criterion of truth (until some position, expressed in the form of a theory, concept, simple inference, is verified by experience, is not put into practice, it will remain just a hypothesis (assumption)).
Meanwhile, practice is both definite and indefinite, absolute and relative. Absolute in the sense that only developing practice can finally prove any theoretical or other provisions. At the same time, this criterion is relative, since the practice itself develops, improves, and therefore cannot immediately and completely prove certain conclusions obtained in the process of cognition. Therefore, in philosophy, the idea of complementarity is put forward: the leading criterion of truth is practice, which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment - is supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.
1. The concept of truth. So, the results of our knowledge (knowledge) may differ. How, then, to determine who is right and who is wrong? The relationship between our knowledge and reality is characterized by the concept of truth.
Truth is an adequate (true, correct) reflection of reality in the human mind.
The opposite of truth is error and falsehood. Delusion- the content of consciousness that does not correspond to reality, but is taken as true, that is, an unconscious distortion of reality. “In order for one person to discover a fruitful truth, it is necessary that a hundred people incinerate their lives in unsuccessful searches and sad mistakes” (Pisarev). Unlike delusion, a lie is a conscious distortion of the truth. Russian philosophy instead of the category of "truth" uses the concept of "truth" - the conscious assertion of truth, the struggle for it.
Not everything in our lives lends itself to evaluation in terms of truth or error. For example, works of art. From the point of view of philosophy, its main categories are fundamentally different.
Truth is one, but for the convenience of its study, various aspects are distinguished in it - properties, types, criteria.
2. Properties of truth. Any truth is objective and concrete.
BUT. Objectivity truth means that it exists in reality, regardless of the consciousness of people, of the cognizing subject. Knowledge about the motion of the Earth around the Sun is meaningfully determined by the object of knowledge (the interaction of the Earth and the Sun), and not by the subject (man).
B. Specificity - a property of truth based on taking into account the specific conditions for the existence of a particular phenomenon, the dependence of truth on the conditions of place and time, etc. For example, the truth or falsity of certain sentences cannot be established if the conditions are not specified, in accordance with which they are formulated. The sentence “The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is equal to 2d” is true only for Euclidean geometry and false in Lobachevsky geometry.
AT. True knowledge can be expressed in different ways by different people - formulas, definitions, laws, etc. This is the subjectivity of truth. But it is subjective only in the form of expression, and not in essence.
3. Kinds of truth. Distinguish between relative and absolute truth.
A. Absolute Truth - this is a complete, exhaustive, accurate, final knowledge about the object of study. Absolute truth is eternal, it embodies the infinity of our knowledge of the world, the limit to which our knowledge strives. It exists, rather, as the goal of knowledge, and not as a really achieved result.
B. Relative truth. The steps on the way to absolute truth are relative truths. Relative truth is complete and accurate knowledge about the object of study, but only at a given level of development of science. Relative truth depends on real historical conditions, in particular on the accuracy or perfection of the means of observation or measurement, and experiment.
B. Connection between absolute and relative truths. They cannot be separated from one another. Absolute truth includes the relative truth leading to it, and each relative truth is, as it were, a particle of absolute truth. Absolute and relative truths are objective truths. The difference between them is only in the degree of accuracy and completeness of the reflection of reality.
4. Criteria of truth. So truth is knowledge corresponding to reality. But how do you know if knowledge corresponds to reality, how can you check it? With the help of criteria - indicators, signs, measures.
The main criterion of truth in cognition is practice(activity, experience or experiment).
For exact sciences the most important is such a criterion of truth as consistency or formal-logical consistency of knowledge, harmonious logical proof, for example, theorems.
Confirms the truth of compliance with previously discovered laws of science.
Additional criteria of truth can be simplicity, harmony, practical usefulness, morality, etc.
SPIRITUAL LIFE
The concept of culture. Forms and varieties of culture
What is culture?
A. Definitions of culture Culture is one of the most ambiguous concepts. Culture is studied by science - cultural studies, in which there are about 400 definitions of culture. The word "culture" comes from lat. culture- cultivation of the soil. In a broad sense, culture means everything that is created by man in the material, spiritual and social world, that is, everything that is supranatural - “second nature”. culture - the totality of all types of transformative human activity, as well as the result of this activity, including the transformation of a person himself. But real TO. should contribute to the spiritual improvement of a person, this is how it differs from anti-culture (concentration camps, instruments of torture). In the narrow sense and in everyday life, we are accustomed to using the concept of K in the sense the process of active creative activity, during which spiritual values are created, distributed and consumed.
B. Functions of culture Culture performs many functions in society: adaptive, regulatory, socialization, axiological (value), informational, symbolic, cognitive, communicative, integrative, relaxation (recreational), humanistic, creative. However, K. does not just serve something, it has a value in itself - it is the only possible way for a person to exist. In general, the role of culture is that it preserves and transmits various information. This transfer of experience is carried out in the course of two parallel processes - continuity and innovation.
B. Spheres of existence of culture . Allocate two such areas- material (tangible, satisfying physical needs - house, furniture, clothing ...) and spiritual (contained in the mind, satisfying ideal needs - literature, art, science ...). In every object of life there is an element both material and spiritual. Spiritual culture finds its expression in material objects (a book, a picture….). An object can be classified as a material or spiritual object on the basis of the needs it satisfies. Structure K: needs (material or spiritual) → production (…..) → benefits (…..).
The structure of the spiritual life of society | |||||||
spiritual needs | spiritual activity (spiritual production) | spiritual goods (values) | |||||
represent an objective need of people and society as a whole to create and master spiritual values | production of consciousness in a special social form, carried out by specialized groups of people professionally engaged in skilled mental labor | ideas, theories, images and spiritual values; Spiritual social relations of individuals; Man himself as a spiritual being |
Spiritual culture that exists exclusively in the minds of people - knowledge, faith, feelings, aspirations, thoughts, interests, abilities - is called the spiritual world of man. The spiritual life of the individual manifests itself in society as a spiritual sphere public life. Its main elements- law, morality, philosophy, science, art, religion.
Forms and types of culture
A. Ways to classify culture:
· in connection with religion secular and religious cultures are separated;
Ethnicity - world and national;
· on the basis of civilization - the culture of the West and the culture of the East;
· by territorial – rural and urban;
By the level of performance and audience - elite, popular and mass;
by distribution - dominant and subcultures,
· on a social class basis - peasant, noble, proletarian, bourgeois, ....
on historical grounds - primitive, medieval, modern
By type of activity - artistic, political, environmental ....
B. Forms of culture
Folk(= folklore - from English. folk-lore - folk art): the first, anonymous, simple, traditional, figurative, national, everyday and epic themes are common. Examples: epics, fairy tales, legends, ditties, proverbs, songs, dances, epics, etc.)
Elite(from French elit - the best, selective, chosen) for the upper part of society ("high"), author's character, experimental, self-expression, for the intelligentsia and specialists, complex in content, full of symbols, subject of controversy, changes with style. Examples: music by Stravinsky, painting by S. Dali or films by F. Fellini.
Bulk(from massa - from lat. com, piece) Appears at the beginning of the 20th century and flourishes. Reasons: population explosion, urbanization, assembly line, media. The mass is the average person. It is primitive in content, satisfies momentary requests, is quickly forgotten, is made for sale, is a commodity. Kitsch (from German kitsch - cheap stuff).
Some types of art can belong to different types of culture. For example, folk, popular and classical music. But there are genres, only mass ones - for example, circus, detective stories, comics, television series, cartoons.
C) Types of culture:
dominant– characteristic of most members of a given community, dominant. Society is divided into many national. professional, age groups- each of them forms its own K - subculture (from lat. sub - under).
Subculture- this is the culture of large social groups, which has significant differences from the dominant one, but does not oppose it (female, professional ...) For example, youth subculture - leisure, study, transition, virtual reality. It is divided into many subcultures: in music (punks, metalheads, rockers, ravers ....); by hobbies (otaku, role players, gamers…); by social beliefs (antifa, yuppies, hippies ..), by hobbies (bikers, hackers, writers ....)
Counterculture- opposes generally accepted values and norms (criminal, terrorist). KK are in the process of mutual influence and development (hippies from the counterculture became a subculture, in cell phone classical music is ringing ....). Mutual influence different types cultures call each other dialogue of cultures. One of its examples is westernization - the spread of the influence of Western culture in the world.
The science. The main features of scientific thinking. Natural and social humanitarian sciences
1. What is science?The science- a form of spiritual activity of people, aimed at the production of knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, which has the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws. The term "SCIENCE" is used in three meanings
2. Science as a social institution- this is a special system of public organizations, institutions that develop, store, disseminate and implement knowledge (research institutes, universities, academic institutions, the Academy of Sciences of the Russian Federation, etc.)
A. Institutionalization (stages of development): originated in ancient world(mathematics, medicine, astronomy, chemistry); XVI century - formation, acquisition of modern meaning, the use of strictly scientific methods; XIX century - specialization, XX century - transformation into the main productive force of society. It develops in a revolutionary way (Newton - everything is based on laws that the human mind can know; Einstein - everything is relative). Late 1970s - NTR (computer). Two contradictory trends in the development of science - specialization (300 areas in medicine) and integration (geophysics)
B. The main feature of any social institution is role in society .
Highlight social function science, which consists in the transformation of social life on the basis of the introduction of the achievements of science in public life(appearance of new drugs).
According to the main goals, sciences are divided into fundamental = theoretical (history of pedagogy; theory of sociology) and applied = practical (methods of teaching social science, methods of sociological research).
3. Science as a special way of knowing the world is a system of scientific research, experimental design research
A. Significantly different from other types of knowledge (mythological, everyday, artistic ). Key Features:
1) objectivity - the desire to obtain objective knowledge, to the truth
2) essence - penetration into cause-and-effect relationships, structure, development of an object
3) breadth of objects of knowledge (studies everything)
4) a special ethics of knowledge (do not distort facts, do not pass off someone else's as your own, evaluate the results from the standpoint of the prospects for the development of mankind)
5) use special methods, devices and terms, systems of concepts
6) rationality - the obligation of logic, evidence, consistency
7) consistency (relationship of knowledge, building a holistic, consistent picture of the world)
8) focus on obtaining new knowledge
B. Levels and methods of scientific knowledge
B. Forms (levels) of the implementation of scientific knowledge:
2. Problem
3. Hypothesis
4. Concept
5. Pattern
6. Law (simple, universal)
8. Paradigm - the basic principle of knowledge of the world, which underlies all scientific research in a certain historical period. It rarely changes as a result of scientific revolutions (the Newtonian paradigm - the whole world is based on laws, a person can know them and act according to them; the Einsteinian paradigm - "everything is relative").
4. As a body of knowledge- these are scientific representations of a concept, theory, brought into a coherent system based on certain principles
A. Types of sciences. According to the subject of study, sciences are divided into: natural (study nature), public (study man and society), exact (study signs). Geography is adjacent between the social and natural sciences, since the anthropogenic factor is increasingly changing the geographical environment (social and economic geography). Social and humanitarian (social) sciences: history, psychology, sociology ... Social and humanitarian sciences are interpenetrating, but if they are distinguished, then: social sciences - analysis of social processes and identification of common regular, recurring phenomena in them, and humanities - analysis of goals, motives, values of a person and understanding of his thoughts, motives, intentions.
B. Features of social cognition . The social and human sciences have specific features associated with the features of social cognition: 1) the coincidence of the subject and object → a large role of the subjective factor; 2) limited possibilities of observation and experiment; 3) uniqueness of facts; 4) the need to analyze a huge number of facts, the impossibility of deriving laws, but only regularities, evaluativeness.
True - correspondence of knowledge to its subject.
Truth must be objective. Objective truth is a truth that does not depend on the will and desire of the subject of knowledge.
There are two types of truth: relative and absolute.
Relative truth - truth, partial, incomplete, characterizing certain aspects or relations of a cognizable object.
absolute truth - complete, accurate, unchanging knowledge that characterizes all aspects of a cognizable object.
Absolute truth is practically unattainable because:
firstly, cognitive means are limited and relative and changeable;
secondly, the world itself is changing and developing.
The main criterion of relative truth is practice: the involvement of knowledge in the practical activities of society.
Practice in scientific knowledge can act as a basis, goal and proof.
The criterion of truth for rationalist philosophers is reason.
The criterion of truth for empiricist philosophers is experience.
1.5 Thinking and acting
Activity - a form of activity inherent exclusively to man, characterized by:
productivity;
consciousness;
gunnery;
sociality:
1) the acquisition of forms of activity through socialization;
2) obligatory communication with society in the course of activity.
Activity structure:
1) Subject - the one who carries out the activity (person or team).
2) The object is what the activity is aimed at.
3) Motive - what induces a person to activity, why a person acts.
4) The goal is something for which the activity is carried out, an ideal image of the desired result.
5) Means - that with the help of which the activity is carried out.
6) Result - changes in reality that occur after the completion of the activity.
Activity consists of actions (an expressed act of behavior that has its goal and result); and actions are made up of operations (a specific way of performing actions).
Activities.
I .
1) Practical:
a) material and production - affecting natural objects;
b) socially transformative - influencing society. 2) spiritual:
a) spiritual and practical - the development and transfer of already existing spiritual values;
b) spiritual and theoretical - creating new spiritual values. Spiritual activity is also divided into:
a) cognitive;
b) prognostic;
c) value-oriented.
II .
a) individual;
b) collective
III .
a) legal;
b) illegal.
IV .
a) moral;
b) immoral.
V .
a) template (according to the model);
b) innovative (creative)
VI .
(according to the stage of a person's life)
b) training;
Highlight communication - activities accompanying other types of joint activities.
Thinking - the process of active reflection of the objective world in concepts, judgments, theories.
Thinking characteristics:
social character;
connection with the language;
indirect character;
personal character.
Human thinking is formed in the process of activity and develops as new forms of activity are mastered.
1.6. Needs and Interests
Need - the fundamental necessity of a person in the conditions of his existence
Need - actualized need, realized at the subjective level
Interest - orientation of a person to the conditions of availability of the object of need
motive - the need that has become the basis of activity.
Classification of needs:
I . Main classification:
1. Material (natural, biological, innate, organic) - the need to maintain physical existence (food, sleep, rest ...)
2. Social - needs in interaction with society (communication, prestige, recognition, work ...)
3. Ideal (spiritual) - the need for the creation and development of spiritual values (creativity, self-realization, knowledge ...)
II . Maslow's pyramid.
According to A. Maslow's classification, people do not move on to satisfying higher needs until the lower level needs are satisfied.
1. Basic
a) Natural (food, sleep...)
b) Existential (security and comfort of existence)
2. Secondary
a) social
b) prestigious
c) spiritual.
Capabilities - innate and acquired qualities that allow a person to perform activities to meet needs.
Abilities are divided into general (eg, writing, running, drawing) and special (eg, athletic ability, artistic ability, mathematical ability).
Talent - a set of abilities that allows you to get a product of activity that is distinguished by novelty, high perfection and social significance.
Genius - the highest stage of talent development, which allows to carry out fundamental changes in a particular field of activity.
Skills are also formed in society - the ability to do something according to a certain pattern.
If a person develops and hones his skills, the concept of "mastery" is applicable to him - a combination of developed skills.
Lecture:
Truth objective and subjective
From the previous lesson, you learned that knowledge about the world around you can be obtained through cognitive activity using the senses and thinking. Agree, a person who is interested in certain objects and phenomena wants to get reliable information about them. The truth is important to us, that is, the truth, which is a universal value. What is truth, what are its types and how to distinguish truth from lies, we will analyze in this lesson.
Main term of the lesson:
Trueis knowledge that corresponds to objective reality.
What does this mean? Objects and phenomena of the surrounding world exist on their own and do not depend on human consciousness, therefore objects of knowledge are objective. When a person (subject) wants to study, explore something, he passes the subject of knowledge through consciousness and derives knowledge corresponding to his own worldview. And, as you know, each person has his own worldview. This means that two people studying the same subject will describe it differently. So knowledge about the subject of knowledge is always subjective. Those subjective knowledge that correspond to the objective subject of knowledge and are true.
Based on the foregoing, one can distinguish between objective and subjective truth. Oobjective truth called knowledge about objects and phenomena, describing them as they really are, without exaggeration and understatement. For example, MacCoffee is coffee, gold is a metal. subjective truth, on the contrary, are called knowledge about objects and phenomena, depending on the opinions and assessments of the subject of knowledge. The statement "MacCoffee is the best coffee in the world" is subjective, because I think so, and someone does not like MacCoffee. Common examples of subjective truth are omens that cannot be proven.
Truth is absolute and relative
Truth is also divided into absolute and relative.
Kinds | Characteristic | Example |
absolute truth |
|
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Relative truth |
|
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Every scientist strives to get as close as possible to absolute truth. However, often due to the insufficiency of methods and forms of cognition, the scientist manages to establish only relative truth. Which with the development of science is confirmed and becomes absolute, or refuted and turns into a delusion. For example, the knowledge of the Middle Ages that the Earth is flat with the development of science was disproved and began to be considered a delusion.
There are very few absolute truths, much more relative ones. Why? Because the world is changing. For example, a biologist studies the number of animals listed in the Red Book. While he is doing this research, the population changes. Therefore, it will be very difficult to calculate the exact number.
!!! It is a mistake to say that absolute and objective truth are one and the same. This is not true. Both absolute and relative truth can be objective, provided that the subject of knowledge has not adjusted the results of the study to fit his personal beliefs.
Truth Criteria
How to distinguish truth from error? To do this, there are special means of testing knowledge, which are called criteria of truth. Consider them:
- The most important criterion is practice – this is an active objective activity aimed at understanding and transforming the world around. The forms of practice are material production (for example, labor), social action(for example, reforms, revolutions), a scientific experiment. Only practically useful knowledge is considered true. For example, on the basis of certain knowledge, the government carries out economic reforms. If they give the expected results, then the knowledge is true. On the basis of knowledge, the doctor treats the patient, if he is healed, then the knowledge is true. Practice as the main criterion of truth is a part of cognition and performs the following functions: 1) practice is a source of cognition, because it is it that pushes people to study certain phenomena and processes; 2) practice is the basis of cognition, because it permeates cognitive activity from beginning to end; 3) practice is the goal of knowledge, because knowledge of the world is necessary for the subsequent application of knowledge in reality; 4) practice, as already mentioned, is the criterion of truth, necessary to distinguish truth from error and falsehood.
- Compliance with the laws of logic. Knowledge obtained by proving should not be confusing and self-contradictory. It must also be logically consistent with well-tested and credible theories. For example, if someone puts forward a theory of heredity that is fundamentally incompatible with modern genetics, we can assume that it is not true.
- Compliance with fundamental scientific laws . New knowledge must comply with the Eternal laws. Many of which you study in the lessons of mathematics, physics, chemistry, social science, etc. These are such as the Law of universal gravitation, the Law of conservation of energy, the Periodic law of Mendeleev D.I., the Law of supply and demand, and others. For example, the knowledge that the Earth is kept in orbit around the Sun corresponds to I. Newton's Law of universal gravitation. Another example, if the price of linen fabric rises, then the demand for this fabric falls, which corresponds to the Law of Supply and Demand.
- Compliance with previously discovered laws . Example: Newton's first law (the law of inertia) corresponds to the law previously discovered by G. Galileo, according to which the body remains at rest or moves uniformly and rectilinearly until it is affected by forces that force the body to change its state. But Newton, unlike Galileo, considered motion more deeply, from all points.
For the greatest reliability of testing knowledge for truth, it is best to use several criteria. Statements that do not meet the criteria of truth are delusions or lies. How do they differ from each other? A delusion is knowledge that does not actually correspond to reality, but the subject of knowledge before a certain moment does not know about it and takes them for the truth. A lie - this is a conscious and deliberate distortion of knowledge, when the subject of knowledge wants to deceive someone.
Exercise: Write in the comments your examples of truth: objective and subjective, absolute and relative. The more examples you give, the more help you will provide to graduates! After all, it is the lack concrete examples makes it difficult to correctly and completely solve the tasks of the second part of the KIM.
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