Who first initiated the process of metaphorization. The use of metaphor in speech. We have established that the means of artistic expression are tropes - epithets, comparisons, metaphors, hyperbole, etc.
Metaphor as a linguistic unit, used in speech, carries its own linguistic load. Therefore, it is advisable to single out the main functions of metaphor in order to determine its role in the language. Kharchenko V.K. highlights the following features:
1) Nominative function.
The possibility of developing figurative meanings in a word creates a powerful counterbalance to the formation of an infinite number of new words. “Metaphor rescues word creation: without metaphor, word creation would be doomed to the continuous production of more and more new words and would burden human memory with an incredible burden.” [Parandovsky Ya., 1982: 4]
The unique role of metaphor in nomination systems is due to the fact that, thanks to metaphor, a balance is restored between the inexplicable or almost inexplicable, simple name and the name explainable, transparent, crystal.
The nominative properties of metaphors shine through not only within a particular language, but also at the interlingual level. An image can arise in the literal translation of a borrowed word and, conversely, in the translation of native language words into other languages.
In the processes of metaphorical nomination, much depends on national traditions, say, in such an area as the culture of the name. Giving a child a name, in Central Asia they traditionally use metaphors: Aizhan - "cheerful moon", Altynai - "golden moon", Gulbahor - "spring flower". The name-metaphor is also found in other languages. [Bessarabova N.D., 1987: 9]
2) Informative function. The first feature of information transmitted through metaphors is the integrity, panoramic image. Panoramicity relies on the visual nature of the image, makes you take a fresh look at the gnostic essence of specific vocabulary, specific words that become the basis, raw material, foundation of any metaphor. In order for a metaphor to take place, to be born, to work, a person must have a generous supply of designation words.
3) Mnemonic function.
Metaphor contributes to a better memorization of information. Indeed, it is worth calling mushrooms natural vacuum cleaners, and we will remember for a long time that it is mushrooms that best absorb toxins from the soil. The increased memorability of the image is apparently due to its emotional and evaluative nature. In its pure form, the mnemonic function, as well as others, is rare. It is combined with an explanatory function in popular science literature, with a genre-forming function in folk riddles, proverbs, literary aphorisms, with a heuristic function in philosophical concepts, scientific theories, and hypotheses.
4) Text-forming function.
The text-forming properties of a metaphor are its ability to be motivated, expanded, that is, explained and continued.
The effect of text formation is a consequence of such features of metaphorical information as the panorama of the image, a large proportion of the unconscious in its structure, and the pluralism of figurative reflections.
5) Genre-forming function.
Genre-forming can be called such metaphor properties that are involved in the creation of a particular genre.
The Polish researcher S. Gaida believes that there are direct links between genre and style. Indeed, for riddles and proverbs, odes and madrigals, lyrical poems and aphoristic miniatures, metaphor is almost obligatory. Aristotle called the riddle a well-crafted metaphor. Wed: The fur coat is new, there is a hole in the hem (hole). Near the stake is a golden head (sunflower).
The genre-obligation of metaphor in riddles can also be proved on the material of a child's story. artistic creativity, riddles invented by children: There are two green banks, and you can’t cross between them (river banks). Red animals live underground, they beat the earth with their feet (earthquake).
6) Explanatory function.
In educational and popular science literature, metaphors play a very special role, helping to assimilate complex scientific information and terminology. If we talk about textbooks, then metaphors in their explanatory function were used much more widely in textbooks of the 19th - early 20th centuries than in current textbooks.
The explanatory function of metaphors gives us language support in the study of physics, music, biology, astronomy, painting, in the study of any craft. [Bulygina T.V., 1990: 14]
7) Emotional-evaluative function.
Metaphor is an excellent means of influencing the addressee of speech. A new metaphor in the text itself already evokes an emotional and evaluative reaction of the addressee of the speech.
In a new, unexpected context, the word not only acquires an emotional value, but sometimes changes its value to the opposite. So, when used metaphorically, the word “slave” can almost get a positive charge: “He knew: everyone who once survived and won, who was able to save someone or saved himself, everyone and everyone were, in essence, happy slaves of experience. Only experience, Zhukov knew, makes a person truly invulnerable. [Vezhbitska Ya., 1996: 31]
8) Conspiratory function.
Conspiracy is the function of a metaphor used to conceal meaning. Not every metaphorical cipher gives grounds to talk about the conspiracy of meaning. The role of metaphor in the creation of the Aesopian language is great, but in a literary work it is more appropriate to talk about metaphorical coding than about conspiracy of meaning. Of course, when you know that "academy" means prison, the conspiratorial properties of the metaphor raise doubts, especially since such figurative and original metaphors are firmly embedded in the memory and do not require repeated explanations.
9) Game function.
Metaphor is sometimes used as a means of the comic, as one of the forms of language play. Every person realizes his deepest, perhaps unconditional, need in playful behavior.
As a form of language game, metaphor is widely used in works of art.
In folklore, there was a form in which the leading function of metaphors was a game function. We have in mind sayings - a genre that is studied, as a rule, together with proverbs and loses the specifics of its language in such a study. If the metaphor of proverbs is predominantly ethical, educative, then the metaphor of sayings is playful, created more for jokes than for education: Grow big, but don’t be noodles, stretch a verst, but don’t be simple. Relatives in the middle of the day, and when the sun sets, the devil will not find her.
10) Ritual function.
The metaphor is traditionally used in congratulations, greetings, festive toasts, as well as when expressing condolences and sympathy. This function can be called ritual.
The development of the ritual function of metaphors also depends on national traditions. So, in the East, detailed, lengthy congratulations were accepted with many comparisons, epithets, metaphors. The ethical side of such greetings should not be reduced to flattery. This is praise in advance, the desire to see a model of wisdom and honesty in front of you.
The proposed classification of metaphor functions is largely arbitrary and schematic. First, one can argue about the number and hierarchy of functions. For example, it should not be singled out as an independent mnemonic function, conspiring to be considered within the framework of the coding, emotional-evaluative to be connected to the nominative one. Secondly, the schematism of the classification is due to the fact that in the living life of the language, functions intersect, conjugate, are in a relationship not only of mutual complement, but also of mutual induction. [Kharchenko V.K., 1992: 19]
When studying the problem of the interaction of functions, one can proceed both from the forms of various hypostases of speech, and from the functions themselves. The high information content of the metaphor generates heuristic properties. The use of metaphor in ritual actions, speeches gives an auto-suggestive effect. The mnemonic function of a metaphor, facilitating memorization, also affects the explanatory potential of metaphors in educational and popular science literature. The coding properties of a metaphor have led to its widespread use as an ethical means, since the ethical effect often depends on the veiled, hidden ethical impact.
Thus, we have clarified the main provisions of the use of metaphor in speech, defined the concept of metaphor as a language unit. In addition, we have considered the main functions of metaphor. Based on our study, we can draw the following conclusions: metaphor as a linguistic phenomenon accompanies language and speech everywhere; many linguists are studying metaphor; they consider the metaphor from different points of view and give their own definitions of this phenomenon in the language. We, in this thesis work, adhere to the opinion of Chudinov A.P., who defines metaphor as the main mental operation that combines two conceptual spheres and creates the opportunity to use the potential of structuring the source sphere with the help of a new sphere. We also determined the functions of metaphor, which are given by Kharchenko V.K. From the foregoing, it can be seen that the metaphor performs a sufficient number of various functions in speech and is quite widely used in the language. Next, we will consider the types of metaphors, define their features and structure.
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Kryukova Natalia Fyodorovna. Metaphorization and metaphoricity as parameters of reflective action in the production and reception of the text: Dis. ... Dr. Philol. Sciences: 10.02.19 Tver, 2000 288 p. RSL OD, 71:03-10/167-4
Introduction
Chapter first. The system of mental activity as a space of metaphorizations and metaphors 19
1. The role and place of metaphorizations and metaphoricality in the action of a person with a text 23
2. Correlation between different organizations of reflection when a person acts with a text 27
Chapter two. The composition of metaphorizations and metaphors as a set of textual means opposite to the means of direct nomination 55
1. Tropical remedies for awakening reflection 62
2. Phonetic means of awakening reflection 112
3. Lexical means of awakening reflection 123
4. Syntactic means of awakening reflection 147
Chapter three. Metaphorization and metaphoricality in the system of action with text when set to different types of understanding 163
1. The place of metaphorizations and metaphoricality in the production and understanding of texts built with a focus on semantizing understanding 166
2. The place of metaphorizations and metaphors in the production and understanding of texts built with a mindset on cognitive understanding 178
3. The place of metaphor and metaphorization in the production and understanding of texts built with the installation on disobjective
understanding 201
Chapter Four. Metaphorization and Metaphoricity in Different Sociocultural Circumstances 211
1. Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations 216
1.1. Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations in national cultures 217
1.2. Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations in different historical circumstances 226
1.3. Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations in different traditions of text and style formation 231
2. Metaphoricity as a criterion for the mentality of various groups of people 235
Conclusion 256
Literature 264
Introduction to work
This dissertation is devoted to the issue of improving understanding with certain modifications of the text, in particular, with various modifications of metaphorization. This topic directly focuses on the study of the interaction between the structure of language and the function of communication, i.e. on the study of one of the most important philological problems: "a person as a subject of speech activity". It seems possible to show the importance of metaphorization in understanding the semantic structure of the text to the extent that understanding the text acts as a cognitive process. In this paper, we intend to investigate the effect of using metaphorical forms of text construction to optimize such cognitive work.
From the very beginning, the difference between the acts of understanding stimulated by a metaphor should be emphasized: 1) understanding the metaphor with its semantics and 2) understanding the meanings in the text thanks to metaphor. Traditionally, the achievement of understanding is considered elementary semantization metaphors, equating its meanings to the meaning of some non-metaphorized segment of the speech chain when building a "direct" version of predication. This paper assumes a broader interpretation of the role of cognitive metaphor in the semantics of the whole text, when it is necessary to understand the meanings, meta-senses and artistic idea, which is real difficulty serious reading.
On the other hand, declaring the universality of metaphorization and metaphoricality as multidimensional linguistic phenomena inextricably linked with the emergence and existence of man (as evidenced by everything from language units - remnants of old stopped metaphorizations, to the books themselves, which are at the same time products of the printing industry with very specific physical
characteristics, and what makes the reader "experience" the most complex collisions and their outcomes), this work is limited to consideration of their most traditional forms, usually the subject of study of stylistics, that is, figures of speech and tropes.
The problem of understanding as a whole is one of the most urgent, since the very phenomenon of understanding is still poorly understood, although it is one of the most attractive for researchers due to its exceptional importance for the effectiveness of many forms of human activity. At present, in the modern methodology of science, questions are being resolved about the place and status of understanding in the processes of cognition (see: Avtonomova, 1988; Bystritsky, 1986; Lektorsky, 1986; Popovich, 1982; Tulmin, 1984; Tulchinsky, 1986; Shvyrev, 1985), about the correlation of knowledge and understanding (see: Malinovskaya, 1984; Rakitov, 1985; Ruzavin, 1985), understanding and communication (see: Brudny, 1983; Sokovnin, 1984; Tarasov, Shakhnarovich, 1989), understanding and picture of the world (see: Loifman, 1987), understanding and explanations (see: Wrigt, 1986; Pork, 1981; Yudin, 1986), etc. The fact is that the problem of understanding is interdisciplinary in nature, and, first of all, it is attributed to the competence of linguistics , psychology and hermeneutics. Within the framework of these disciplines, rich empirical material has been accumulated, which has not yet received a satisfactory philosophical generalization, and the very interdisciplinary nature of the problem of understanding has generated many approaches to its solution and, accordingly, to a relatively large variety of not always consistent theoretical concepts describing phenomenon of understanding (Nishanov, 1990):
understanding as decoding
understanding as translation into "inner language"
understanding as interpretation
understanding as a result of explanation
understanding as evaluation
understanding as comprehension of the unique
understanding as a synthesis of integrity, etc.
Undoubtedly, however, is that understanding is associated with the development by the subject of knowledge about the material and spiritual world. Hegel also drew attention to the fact that "any understanding is already an identification of "I" and an object, a kind of reconciliation of those parties that remain separated outside this understanding; what I do not understand, do not know, remains something else alien to me" (Hegel, 1938, p. 46). Thus, the science of understanding should be considered as one of the branches of human science.
It is also quite obvious that the process of understanding is closely connected with the functioning of the language, with communicative activity. The exchange of texts involves both their generation and transmission on the part of the producer, and the establishment of textual meaning on the part of the recipient. At the same time, most researchers agree that understanding is not a specific procedure for mastering language formations, that its competence extends to all phenomena of the surrounding reality, including those not expressed in language or text. At the same time, the problem of understanding the language, text, despite the fact that it acts as only one of the sides of the general theoretical problem of understanding, is, from the point of view of science, one of the most urgent research tasks. Its relevance is determined by "the greater clarity of the difference between the" signifier "and" signified "in the language in comparison with other normative-value systems. Therefore, in a certain respect, understanding the linguistic sign is the key to understanding other elements of culture" (Gusev, Tulchinsky, 1985, p. 66 ). In addition, the analysis of the problem of understanding language formations, texts is essential for the humanities in general, because, as A.M. Korshunov and V.V. Mantatov rightly point out, "text is a primary given
and the starting point of any humanitarian knowledge. "The problem of the text" represents a certain basis for the realization of the unity of all forms of humanitarian knowledge, the unification of its methodology. Many epistemological issues of all the humanities converge in the problem of the text" (1974, p. 45).
It should be emphasized that the question of the essence of text understanding is one of the most difficult in philology. This is also evidenced by the fact that there is still no "solid" definition of understanding the text. There are several such definitions, and all of them are limiting, i.e. allow only to delimit the "understanding of the text" from other subjects of study - in particular from thinking, consciousness, knowledge. This is the opinion of G.I. Bogin (see: 1982, p.3) and he himself defines understanding as the assimilation by the mind of what is present or given implicitly (see: 1993, p.3). In most cases, this "implicit" means meaning(thought) text. So, seeing the specificity of understanding in revealing the meaning hidden in texts, V.K. Nishanov concludes that objects that, in principle, are not carriers of meaning, generally speaking, cannot be understood (see: 1990, p. 79). In other words, the concepts of "meaning" and "understanding" turn out to be "correlative and cannot be considered in isolation from each other. There is no sense outside understanding, just as understanding is the assimilation of some sense" (Gusev, Tulchinsky, 1982, p. 155); and if by meaning we understand that configuration of "connections and relations between different elements of the situation and communication, which is created or restored by a person who understands the text of the message" (Shchedrovitsky, 1995, p. 562), then what are the conditions for this creation or restoration? "Sense appears under certain conditions. In particular, for the appearance of meaning there must be some situation, either in activity, or in communication, or in both. At the same time, the situation must be the material on which reflection is directed" (Bogin, 1993 , p.34-35). Thus, in the study of
The problem of understanding the text cannot be dispensed with without the most important concept of reflection here, defined in this case as a link between the extracted past experience and the situation, which is presented in the text as an object for development (see: Bogin, 1986, p. 9). Reflection underlies the processes of understanding the text. At one time, the author of this work showed that such a figure of speech as a metaphor "awakens" easier and faster than other figures, stimulates reflective processes and therefore represents the most effective remedy understanding the content of the text (see: Kryukova, 1988). Metaphor itself is objectified reflection, its hypostasis. Moreover, a metaphor was understood not only as a figure of speech as a proper metaphor, but also other means of text construction that have this ability. All textual means (syntactic, phonetic, lexical, phraseological, derivational and even graphic) capable of awakening reflection and thereby objectifying explicit and implicit meanings are similar in this respect to each other and therefore are able to be categorized. In this regard, it is legitimate to raise the question of the category of metaphorization as a metameans of understanding.
As for the degree of development of the problem, full-scale generalizing works that consider metaphorization as an incarnation of reflection have not yet been created. However, a solid volume of literature has been accumulated, directly or indirectly related to the subject of research: all literature on metaphor, starting with Aristotle.
The study of metaphor in Antiquity is carried out within the framework of one of the sections of rhetoric and poetics - the theory of tropes, and is associated with the specification of types of figurative meanings and the construction of their classification.
Philosophers of modern times considered metaphor as an unnecessary and unacceptable embellishment of speech and thought, a source of ambiguity and delusion (J. Locke, T. Hobbes). They believed that when using the language
it is necessary to strive for precise definitions, for unambiguity and certainty. This point of view slowed down the study of metaphor for a long time and made it a marginal area of knowledge.
The revival of metaphor begins around the middle of the 20th century, when metaphor is understood as a necessary and very important element of language and speech. The study of metaphor becomes systematic, and metaphor acts as an independent object of study in various disciplines: philosophy, linguistics, psychology.
For example, within the framework of linguistic and philosophical research, the problems of semantics and pragmatics of metaphor are widely discussed: the distinction between literal and metaphorical meaning, criteria for metaphor, metaphor and conceptual system, etc. (A.Richards, M.Black, N.Goodman, D.Davidson, J.Searl, A.Vezhbitska, J.Lakoff, M.Johnson, N.D.Arutyunova, V.N.Telia and others). The subject of the psychological study of metaphor is its understanding; among the directions of her research should be highlighted: a discussion of the stages of the process of understanding (H.Clark, S.Glucksberg, B.Keysar, A.Ortony, R.Gibbs, et al.), the study of the specifics of understanding the metaphor by children (E.Winner, S.Vosniadou , A.Keil, H.Pollio, R.Honeck, A.P. Semyonova, L.K. Balatskaya and others); the study of factors that determine the "success" of a metaphor and affect its understanding (R. Sternberg, et al.).
Until now, modern science does not have a single point of view on the understanding of metaphor as a mental phenomenon. One of the latest modern classifications of existing concepts of metaphor, developed by G.S. Baranov (see: 1992), consists of the following groups: 1) comparative-figurative, 2) figurative-emotive, 3) interactionist, 4) pragmatic, 5) cognitive, 6) semiotic. Nevertheless, none of these concepts fully explains all the specifics of metaphors, the criterion of metaphoricality, and does not reveal the mechanism for understanding the metaphor.
taphoric expressions, since it does not consider metaphor simultaneously with communicative, cognitive, aesthetic and other functions taken together.
In modern writings on metaphor, three main views on its linguistic nature can be distinguished:
metaphor as a way of existence of the meaning of a word,
metaphor as a phenomenon of syntactic semantics,
metaphor as a way of conveying meaning in a communicative act.
In the first case, the metaphor is considered as a lexicological phenomenon. This approach is the most traditional, since it is most closely related to the idea of language as a relatively autonomous from speech activity and a stable system. Accordingly, representatives of this approach believe that the metaphor is realized in the structure of the linguistic meaning of the word.
The second approach focuses on the metaphorical meaning that arises from the interaction of words in the structure of a phrase and a sentence. It is the most common: for it, the boundaries of the metaphor are wider - it is considered at the level of syntactic compatibility of words. This approach contains more dynamism. Most clearly, his position is reflected in the interactionist theory of M. Black.
The third approach is the most innovative, since it considers metaphor as a mechanism for forming the meaning of an utterance in various functional varieties of speech. For this approach, a metaphor is a functional and communicative phenomenon that is realized in a statement / text.
The first two approaches led to the development of the third, which can be called functional-communicative. It should be noted a few
theories that provided the methodological basis of this approach. First of all, it is the pragmatic and cognitive theory of metaphor.
pragmatic theory metaphor is the backbone for the functional approach. Its main position is that the metaphor does not arise in the semantic area of the language, but in the process of using the language in speech. The scope of a living metaphor is not a sentence, but a speech statement: "A metaphor exists in individual sentences only in laboratory conditions. In everyday reality, a metaphor arises in informal and official communication to fulfill certain communicative goals" (Katz, 1992, p. 626). The pragmatic theory is a significant addition to the semantic-syntactic approach and allows you to transfer the study of metaphor to the level of speech utterance, using all the main provisions of the theory about the semantic mechanisms of the emergence of metaphorical meaning.
At the basis of all views on the nature of metaphor is the position on the metaphorical nature of thinking as such. Metaphorical thinking receives the highest development in the field of verbal art as a modeling system that masters all objects of existence accessible to a person (see: Tolochin, 1996, p. 31). The consequence of the fact that the modeling of concepts in artistic speech is as creative as possible is the freedom of artistic speech, in comparison with other functional speech varieties, from the restrictions imposed by the language system. To establish correspondence and continuity between the linguistic systemic nature of a metaphor and its complex and, at first glance, difficult to semantize speech forms allows cognitive theory metaphors. It is based on the position according to which in consciousness there are deep structural relationships between groups of concepts that allow structuring some concepts in terms of others.
and thereby predetermining the all-penetrating nature of metaphor in speech and its diversity in specific manifestations, as well as the ease with which metaphors are perceived and understood in many types of speech.
However, the very fundamental idea of cognitivism (cognitive science) approach that thinking is the manipulation of internal (mental) representations such as frames, plans, scenarios, models and other structures of knowledge (as in the case of metaphorical concepts, for example), indicates the obvious limitations of such purely rational understanding of the nature of thinking (see: Petrov, 1996). Indeed, if through metaphorical concepts it is still possible to explain the mechanism of formation of associative links that make it easy to create and understand metaphorical expressions in non-artistic forms of speech, then it is hardly possible to find a single matrix conceptual basis in all the complex variety of artistic metaphors.
Literary text is a special form of communication. The future development of his concept of the so-called "dynamic" style is rightly associated by researchers with the study text activity, the transition from actualization to contextualization, with access to the extralinguistic area, to the conditions of textual activity of the subjects of communication, during which a person cognizes and transforms himself (see: Bolotnova, 1996; Baranov, 1997). This activity is of the most creative nature, which makes it possible to call literature the most “unreliable” language, generating in the mind the most whimsical and subjective associations that cannot be described within the framework of linguistic experiments (see: Bayer, 1986). As E. Husserl noted, “the originality of consciousness in general lies in the fact that it is a fluctuation occurring in the most diverse dimensions, so there can be no question of a conceptually accurate fixation of any eidetic con-
concretenesses and moments directly constituting them" (Husserl, 1996, p. 69).
Incessant fluctuations and deviations are the obligatory characteristics of the metaphorical process, observed at three interrelated levels (see: MacCortas, 1995, pp. 41-43): 1) metaphor as a linguistic process (possible movement from ordinary language to diaphora-epiphora and back to ordinary language); 2) metaphor as a semantic and syntactic process (dynamics of a metaphorical context); 3) metaphor as a cognitive process (in the context of increasing evolving knowledge). All these three aspects characterize metaphor as a single process, but it is extremely difficult to explain it in terms of all three at once. However, this is possible provided that the linguistic plan is overcome by reintegrating semantics into ontology (see: Ricoeur, 1995). An intermediate stage in this direction is reflection, that is, the connection between the understanding of signs and self-understanding. It is through self-understanding that it is possible to understand existence. The one who understands can appropriate meaning for himself: from someone else's he wants to make it his own; expansion of self-understanding he tries to achieve through the understanding of the other. According to P. Ricoeur, any hermeneutics explicitly or implicitly acts as an understanding of oneself through the understanding of another. And any hermeneutics appears where before there was a false interpretation. If we consider that interpretation is understood as the work of thinking, which consists in deciphering the meaning behind the obvious meaning, in revealing the levels of meaning contained in the literal meaning, then we can say that understanding (and at first misunderstanding) appears where metaphor takes place.
The foregoing allows us to assert that the activity approach will enrich the functional-communicative theory of metaphor and contribute to its study as a component of the semantic structure of the text, as well as
use it as a theoretical basis for this study, formed by a number of important provisions. The first of these is determined by the general intentional the pathos of the existential analysis and activity approach of A.N. Leontiev, which consists in the obligatory objective orientation of the consciousness of a person who creates himself in the process of free activity, which is a connecting thread between the subject and the world. Next, we should mention the hermeneutics of P. Ricoeur, "grafted" by him to the phenomenological method in order to clarify the meaning of existence, voiced in the form of a postulate: "to be means to be interpreted." The works of domestic researchers, in which interpretation is considered as a expressed reflection and reflection itself is considered both a process of activity and the most important moment in the mechanisms of the development of activity, on which all, without exception, the organization of reflection depends, i.e. all its* objectifications, including objectification in the form of understanding the meaning of texts (Moscow Methodological Circle, created by G.P. Shchedrovitsky; Pyatigorsk Methodological Circle under the leadership of Prof. V.P. Litvinov; Tver School of Philological Hermeneutics under the direction of Prof. G. I. Bogina) indicate that meanings act as organizations of reflection, and if they are not indicated in the text by means of direct nomination, they cannot be seen except through reflective acts. The organization of reflection is understood as its otherness, associated with the restructuring of some components of the action (ie, multiple acts that have the characteristic of action).
Thus, these facts speak of the relevance of the dissertation research, determined by the need to reveal the specifics of the mechanism of metaphorization as an exit to the meanings of the text and to study the principles of organizing understanding in a metaphorical textual environment, which will allow a more specific approach to the consideration of such important issues.
problems of hermeneutics and general linguistics, such as the understanding of the text, the development of meanings and the plurality of interpretations.
Scientific novelty The study carried out is as follows:
for the first time, ways of organizing reflection during the action of a subject with a metaphorized text are considered;
metaphorization and metaphoricality are described for the first time as parameters of reflective action for understanding implicit meanings, unfolding within the space of systemic activity;
a classification of means of metaphorization is proposed as different ways of organizing reflection during human action With text
the features of metaphorization and metaphoricality as different otherness (hypostases) of reflection in texts with an orientation towards different types of understanding are studied;
the reasons for the similarities and differences of metaphorization and metaphors, acting as manifestations of the human spirit in different sociocultural circumstances, are clarified.
The object of this study are the acts of awakening reflection and the processes of its organization during the action of the subject with metaphorized texts.
Research material are texts of various metaphorical richness and genre-style orientation.
The specifics of the object of study determined the choice of the main methods and techniques: modeling (schematization) as the main method based on the system-thought-activity methodology developed by G.P. Shchedrovitsky and allowing to implement an approach to the problems of reflection on the text; deductive-hypothetical method; linguistic analysis of metaphorization means; interpretation of the text with elements of semantic
tico-stylistic analysis, as well as using the universal reflective technique of the hermeneutic circle.
The above considerations dictate goal of this dissertation: to determine the role and place of metaphorization and metaphoricity against the background of reflective foundations of understanding as one of the thinking processes associated with linguistic expression. "".""" .;.-;":/""№.;.;.
The degree of development of the problem requires the solution of the following research tasks in order to achieve the goal.
Necessary:
connect understanding with the concept of reflection, which is basic for it;
to distinguish between metaphorization and metaphoricality, while pointing out their interrelation and interdependence as parameters of reflective action during the production and reception of the text;
consider metaphorization as an act of awakening reflection;
consider metaphor as the reason for the awakening of reflection;
identify different options for fixing reflection along the three belts of systemic activity as different compositions of metaphorization and metaphoricality;
analyze different groups of textual means of indirect nomination in order to identify the characteristic fixation of reflection awakened by them as specific ways of stimulating reflective processes;
to determine which means of metaphorization work most effectively when creating the optimal metaphor that is characteristic of texts intended for different types of understanding;
identify the features of similarities and differences of metaphorization in the socio-cultural context.
The set goal and objectives determined the general logic of the study and the structure of the work, which consists of an introduction, four chapters and a conclusion. The first chapter defines the role and place of metaphorization and metaphoricality when a person acts with a text as different ways of organizing reflection in the space of systemic thought activity. In the second chapter, the main groups of metaphorization means are considered from the point of view of their ability to awaken reflection, which gives different organization in the space of systemic thought activity. The third chapter examines the dependence of the organization of reflection on metaphorization and metaphoricity in the system of action with the text when set to different types of understanding. In the fourth chapter, an attempt is made to analyze the reasons for the similarities and differences of metaphorization and metaphoricality as hypostases of reflection in different sociocultural circumstances. The text of the dissertation is provided with a glossary, including the interpretation of the main working terms.
As a result of the study, brought to the defense the following theoretical provisions:
all traditional means of metaphorization (tropes and figures of speech), which provide different ways of optimizing the processes of sense-perception and sense-building when the subject acts with the text, are classified depending on the characteristics of fixing the reflection they awaken, namely: tropeic and phonetic means act as "figurative" means , giving reactivation of subject representations; lexical means - as "logical" means, giving direct insights into metasenses; syntactic means - as "communicative" means, giving the discretion of textual characteristics;
the optimal choice of means of indirect nomination determines the habitual metaphorical nature of the text, which is a system of text characteristics, intentionally or unintentionally built by the producer for the recipient's action with a focus on improving understanding;
texts intended for different types of understanding, depending on the features of the processes of sense perception and sense construction, are characterized by a specific metaphor (redundancy / entropy for semantizing understanding; explication / implication for cognitive understanding; automation / actualization for deobjective understanding), optimally created by a certain group means of metaphorization;
the nature of the metaphor, considered as a concrete objectification of reflection, i.e. one of the ways of its organization, indicates both the universality of the category of metaphorization, and the specificity of metaphor, which is an indicator of the mentalities of various groups of people.
The theoretical significance of the dissertation is determined by the results of the study on the characteristics of different groups of metaphorization means, the specifics of the metaphorical nature of texts with a focus on different types of understanding, and the uniqueness of metaphors in different sociocultural circumstances. The results obtained are a contribution to the linguistic theory of metaphor, presenting new data on the function of one of the important means of text construction in cognitive work present in the intellectual system "man - text". For the first time, the effect of using metaphorical forms of text construction to optimize the understanding of a text as a cognitive process is studied, based on a system-thought-activity methodology that makes it possible to describe different ways of organizing reflection awakened by a metaphorized text, according to the criterion "measure and method of metaphorization".
The practical value of the work lies in the fact that as a result of the study, data were obtained (classification of the means of awakening reflection, their characteristics regarding the ability to create special metaphors, as well as to ensure the similarity of metaphorizations in different national cultures, historical circumstances and traditions of text and style formation), having of particular importance when performing analytical procedures in relation to the text (evaluating the impact of the text, automating the procedures for working with text, literary criticism, editing, translation analysis of the original, etc.) and offering specific indicators that can be evaluated, criticized or optimized. The data obtained about the metaphorical means of text construction, addressed to the products of the metaphorical context, in the conditions of pedagogical, mass or scientific and technical communication, can contribute to the work on programming the impact or readability of the text.
The role and place of metaphorizations and metaphoricality when a person acts with a text
The term "metaphorization" itself is ambiguous, defining phenomena of a different nature. So, speaking about the metaphorization of meaning in semantics, metaphorization is understood as the process of producing a complex semantic structure based on initial units, and the metaphor itself in this case is a semantic derivative, a linguistic phenomenon of a derivational nature (see: Murzin, 1974, 1984). In psychology, metaphorization is a universal brain mechanism that fully implements a system of rigid and flexible links that provides creative mental activity. In stylistics, metaphorization is referred to pictorial categories as ways of figurative representation of the realities of the artistic world, perceived as peculiar zones of poetic semantics, where speech means manifest varieties of artistic generalization (see: Kozhin, 1996, pp. 172-173). As you can see, differences in concepts are often determined by the scientific approach. At the same time, all definitions point to the ability of the category of metaphorization to give ideas about the formation of something new.
In the psychological theory of intellectual activity, there are two dominant points of view on understanding and two corresponding meanings of the term "understanding": 1) understanding as a process; 2) understanding as a result of this process. GI Bogin distinguishes, respectively, procedural and substantive types of understanding (see: Bogin, 1993). The result of understanding is meaning as some kind of knowledge that is included in an already existing system of knowledge or correlates with it (see: Rogovin, 1969; Kornilov, 1979; Kulyutkin, 1985). Meaning as an ideal mental model is created (constructed) by the subject in the process of understanding the text; at the same time, metaphorization plays the role of a building program, "and such cognitive structures as knowledge, opinions, sensory images, as well as mental models built by the subject in previous acts of understanding act as" building material "(Nishanov, 1990, p. 96), i.e. all the basic experience of the individual, accumulated in life. Metaphorization rather determines a dynamic, rapidly changing picture of the highlighting of individual fragments of this experience in the course of reflective processes, rather than some immovable integrity. In the process of communication, it is rather a speech act than a speech object; something that the speaker and the listener do together. In the situation of the activity of the recipient of the text, this is not a frozen scheme, but a constant process of change, correction of the course of reflection, which ultimately leads to the discretion of certain meanings of the text programmed by the producer.
Metaphorization sets countless number of turns of reflection, one of which is represented on G.I. Bogin’s diagram (1993, p. of that world of meanings in which a person lives, using the fruits of his life. experience. This outward-reaching ray is directed at the material being mastered (reflective reality) and carries the components of semantic experience, which, meeting with elements of the material of reflective reality, are mutually re-expressed in acts of reflection, which leads to the appearance of minimal semantic units - noems. Then there is a metaphorization of meaning, a similarity is created or meanings are born. After that, from the reflective reality (the material being mastered), a fundamentally different, namely, inward-directed ray of reflection continues its movement. This is actually a directed ray, since it is directed by noemas, and it itself directs the noemas, which in its course form a configuration of connections and relations, i.e. meanings that settle in the corresponding hummocks of the human soul, i.e. ontological structure of man. Thus, in just one round of reflection, the so-called metaphorical shift is realized three times, using the terminology of M. Black (see: Black, 1962).
It can be said that in the production and reception of a text we are dealing with the same type of spiritual activity, called understanding, which is an innumerable number of turns of reflection within the same hermeneutical circle. As in the case of the producer, so in the case of the recipient, the process of understanding can be described within the framework of the process of metaphorization, but the results will be different. The difference lies in the fact that if the recipient is faced with the task of understanding the meanings objectified in the text, that is, in fact, understanding the author, then for the producer, understanding primarily consists in self-understanding, which ultimately also leads to an understanding of socially adequate meanings (here it is appropriate to recall more and more insistently put forward the thesis about the isomorphism of the creator and the created, allowing inversion in the interpretation of the opposition "author - text"; .428)). One way or another, we do not contradict P. Ricoeur's statement that the only chance to understand the existent is to understand oneself through understanding the other (see: Ricoeur, 1995, p.3-37). As for the results of the understanding process, for the recipient of the text it will be a new generalized meaning, and for the producer - a new metaphor, that is, a new, metaphorized text. The metaphorical nature of the text then represents a system of circumstances for acting with a mindset to improve understanding. That is why it (metaphoricity) is the most important feature of a literary text (see: Tolochin, 1996, p. 20), which is distinguished by a special semantic and content richness, the development of which is possible only as a result of a complex and multifaceted process of understanding, which absolutely excludes the removal of reflection. Metaphoricality, on the other hand, creates the conditions for the emergence of meaning as a specific situation in communication; it serves as material for the construction of a reflective reality, on which the outward-reaching ray of reflection is directed. From the elements of reflective reality touched by the ray of reflection (meaningful experience) emanating from the ontological structure of the subject, noemas are born. This explains why the metaphorical is never equivalent to a literal paraphrase. Thus, M. Black has always strongly objected to any substitutive view of metaphor.
Tropical means of awakening reflection
Let's consider a number of concepts of metaphor in order to better understand other means of metaphorization (tropes and figures of speech), since all the main theories of metaphor are to some extent general linguistic in nature.
Emotive theories of metaphor. They traditionally exclude metaphor from scientific descriptive discourse. These theories deny any cognitive content of the metaphor, focusing only on its emotional character; consider metaphor as a deviation from the linguistic form, devoid of any meaning. Such a view of metaphor is the result of a logical-positivist attitude to meaning: the existence of meaning can only be confirmed empirically. Thus, the expression sharp knife: makes sense, since this “sharpness” can be tested during tests, but a sharp word could already be considered a completely meaningless combination of words, if not for the semantic connotation conveyed exclusively by the emotional coloring of this phrase. Focusing only on the emotional nature of the metaphor, emotive theories do not touch the very essence of the mechanism of metaphorization. As a basis for criticism in this case, one can note ignoring the presence of a figurative basis that causes similarity. common feature between the direct and figurative meaning of the word, which was mentioned on p. 52 (for its interpretation as a mobile feature from the standpoint of mental activity, see p. 47). On the same positions is the concept of tension (tension), according to which the emotional tension of a metaphor is generated by the abnormality of the combination of its referents. It is assumed that the recipient feels a desire to relieve this tension, trying to unravel what the anomaly itself is. Such a concept leaves metaphor with a single hedonistic function: to please or entertain; regards it as a purely rhetorical device. This theory explains the appearance of "dead" metaphors by a gradual drop in emotional intensity as the frequency of their use increases. And since, within the framework of this theory, the metaphor appears as something false and false due to the fact that the juxtaposition of its referents is alien, then the conclusion immediately suggests itself that as the metaphor becomes more familiar, its tension decreases, and the falseness disappears. E. McCormack formulates this conclusion in the following way: "... a strange state of affairs is created: a hypothesis or political insight can become truths ... through the repeated use of a metaphor. Due to a prolonged violation, the tension drops, a preponderance in favor of truth sets in, and statements become grammatically correct. Truth and grammatical deviations turn out to be dependent on emotional tension" (MacSogtas, 1985, p. 27).
Despite serious shortcomings, both theories are correct in that metaphor does often contain more charge than non-metaphorical expressions, and as the frequency of its use increases, this charge loses its potency. Indeed, one of the essential aspects of metaphor is its ability to evoke in the recipient a sense of tension, surprise and discovery, and any good theory metaphors should include this aspect.
The theory of metaphor as substitution (substitutive approach). The substitutive approach is based on the fact that any metaphorical expression is used instead of an equivalent literal expression and can be completely replaced by it. Metaphor is the substitution of the right word for the wrong one. This view is rooted in Aristotle's definition: a metaphor gives a thing a name that actually belongs to something else. The cognitive content of a metaphor can simply be considered its literal equivalent. At the same time, to the question "why do we need strange intricate statements when everything can be said directly?" - substitution theory answers as follows. A metaphor is a kind of puzzle offered to the recipient for deciphering. In this form, the metaphor gives new life to old expressions, dressing them in beautiful expressions. M. Black formulates this idea as follows: “Again, the reader enjoys solving a problem or admires the author’s skill to half hide and half reveal what he wanted to say. And sometimes metaphors cause a “pleasant surprise” shock, etc. The principle arising from of all, the following. If you are in doubt about some linguistic feature, see how much pleasure it gives to the reader. This principle works well in the absence of any other evidence "(Black, 1962, p. 34).
The theory of substitution gives metaphor the status of a simple ornamental means: the author prefers metaphor to its literal equivalent only because of stylization and embellishment. No other significance is attached to the metaphor, except to make speech more pretentious and attractive.
Comparative theory. The traditional theory of substitution for the most part served as the basis for the development of another widespread theory, the beginnings of which can be found in Aristotle's Rhetoric and in Quintilian's Rhetorical Instructions. From the point of view of this theory, the metaphor is actually an elliptical construction, an abbreviated form of a simple or artistic comparison. So, when we call someone a "lion", we are really saying that this person is like a lion. We know that he is not really a lion, but we want to compare some of his features with those of lions, but are too lazy to do so explicitly.
This view of metaphor is more subtle than the simple substitution theory, since it assumes that a metaphor is comparing two things in order to find similarities between them, and not just replacing one term with another. Thus the metaphor becomes an elliptical simile in which elements like "like" and "as" are omitted.
The comparative approach assumes that the meaning of any metaphorical expression can still be expressed by a literal equivalent, since a literal expression is one of the forms of explicit comparison. So, when we say "this person is a lion", we are really saying "this person is like a lion", which means that we are taking all the characteristics of a given person and all the characteristics of a lion, comparing them in order to identify similar ones. These similar characteristics become the basis of the metaphor. Thus, comparative theory relies on some pre-existing similarity of characteristics inherent in two similar objects. These similar features are subsequently explicated when comparing all the characteristics of the subjects of the metaphor. Since the comparison can be literal, the metaphorical definition is also assigned a stylistic function.
The place of metaphorizations and metaphoricality in the production and understanding of texts built with a focus on semantizing understanding
Semantic understanding (Пі) is built on direct nomination and is a case of referring the signified to the signifier as to a known sign form. Although such an understanding by association is the simplest, reflective processes are already involved, since it rather quickly leads to the emergence of an experience of semantization stored in memory in the form of a certain lexicon. Any new act of semantization thus forces one to specifically reflect on the existing experience of semantization. On the whole, Pi assumes the following mutually coordinated actions: perceptual recognition (based on association), decoding (as a moment of the simplest sign situation), and reflection on memory experience (internal lexicon) (see: Bogin, 1986, p. 34). The last aspect is especially noteworthy in the sense that it is important where the understanding of the text actually takes place, i.e. when misunderstanding arises and then overcome. Reflection on the sign form leads to content, i.e. to what is to be understood in the text.
The foregoing does not contradict the criticism of the compositional theory of meaning (see: Turner & Faucormier, 1995), the essence of which is that meaning is not compositional in the sense accepted in semantics. There is no encoding of concepts into words or decoding of words into concepts. According to compositional theory, conceptual constructions are preceded by the linking of components, and the formal expression of such a conceptual construction names or in some other way points to suitable components. In fact, conceptual constructions are not of a compositional nature, and their linguistic designations do not indicate components. For example, there is an intuition that words like safe, dolphin, shark, child correspond to basic meanings, and when they are combined, we combine the meanings of these words in accordance with the straightforward logic of compositionality. In practice, we get completely different integrated meanings of words like dolphin-safe, shark-safe, child-safe. So, dolphin-safe, when it's written on cans of tuna, means that no harm is done to dolphins when fishing for tuna. Shark-safe in connection with swimming means that conditions have been created so that swimmers will not be attacked by sharks. Child-safe in connection with rooms is used to indicate that such rooms are safe for children (they do not contain the typical dangers that may lie in wait for children). Such two-word expressions are the result of conceptual integration: the features of the original concepts intersect in a larger structure. In each case, from the minimal premises, the understander must extract much broader conceptual structures and, through the use of imagination, discover a productive way of integrating them into the relevant scenario. Such methods may differ for particular cases. So, in dolphin-safe tuna, the dolphin acts as a potential victim. In dolphin-safe diving, in connection with human divers who search for mines under the protection of dolphins, the latter act as guarantors of people's safety. Dolphin-safe diving can also be used in connection with dolphin imitation, where the safety of the dive is provided in a manner associated with dolphins, etc. In other words, this cannot be explained from the positions of compositionality theory, moreover, changing the position of the word safe (for example, safe dolphin) will entail a different set of potential meanings.
The expression dolphin-safe in all these cases only motivates, but does not compositionally predict the much richer conceptual intersection required to understand this expression. The understander in all these cases must "unpack" the minimal language keys in order to arrive at broad conceptual sets on the basis of which the intersection can be made. In the case of dolphin-safe, the end scenario (tuna can, human divers, dolphin impersonation) is absolutely necessary, regardless of how much it is associated with the dolphin conceptual domain and the safety input frame.
Such examples include cruelty-free (about shampoos), a variety of compositional integration in waterproof, tamper-proof, child-proof or talent pool, gene pool, water pool, football pool, betting pool.
The illusion of a central position of compositionality makes possible the erroneous point of view that such examples are borderline or exotic and should not be considered from positions of "nuclear semantics". According to this illusion, dolphin-safe or football pools operate on different principles than red pencil or green house, which serve as canonical examples. However, non-compositional conceptual integration is just as necessary for these "core" cases (see: Travis, 1981). Red pencil can refer to a pencil whose wooden surface is painted red; a pencil that leaves red on paper; lipstick, etc. The scripting required for such integrated values is no simpler than that required for cases like dolphin-safe. The cognitive processes required to construct such integrated meanings are the same as those required to interpret supposedly exotic examples. Some authors (see: Turner & Fauconnier, 1995; Langacker, 1987) believe that even these prototypical forms themselves represent intersections constructed based on the filling of slots in some "default" frame. Of course, frequently repeated intersections in similar situations can be stored in memory in integrated forms and used accordingly1. But this concerns differences in the degree of conventionality or familiarity, but not the mechanisms for achieving integration. Just as a blackbird is supposed to be stored as a whole unit, a black bird with the default padding "bird with black plumage" can be stored as a whole unit. Understanding black bird in any other sense will require ongoing integration when first encountering such a case. However, as you get used to it, this too will be stored in memory as a default fill.
Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations in national cultures
In connection with metaphorization in cognitive linguistics in different time interchangeable terms "cognitive model" (cognitive model) and "cultural model" (cultural model) appeared, denoting certain knowledge that is acquired and stored as the property of individuals, social groups or cultures. In the literature on cognitive science, the word "model" is often replaced by the word "domain" (see: Langacker, 1991). However, the second is less suitable, since it does not reveal the main aspect of metaphorizations so well, which is that not only the properties of individual categories connected by it are important for a metaphor, but also their role in structuring general model commonly referred to as cognitive. Metaphorical transfer thus reflects the structure, internal connections and logic of the cognitive model. Cognitive scientists have called this transfer "overlay" (mapping) source (source) on the target (target). In other words, from a cognitive point of view, a metaphor is an imposition of the structure of the original model on the final model. So, for example, the structural overlays of "travel" on "life" will be such metaphors as "a living person is a traveler" (She went through life with a good heart), "life goals are destinations" (Does not know where he is going in life ) etc. Some authors (see: Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; La-koff, 1987; Lipka, 1988; Lakoff & Turner, 1989) list typical end and end patterns, eg anger/dangerous beast; dispute / travel; dispute/war, the superimposition of which produces metaphors called "metaphorical concepts" by Lakoff and Johnson. These concepts reflect the most fundamental cultural values, as a rule, at the universal human level and therefore are the basis of understanding in communication, self-knowledge, behavior, aesthetic activity and politics.
Basically, metaphorical concepts are "dead", linguistic metaphors, in the depths of which they live and thereby participate in the synchronous-linguistic creation and perception of the image of the world, archetypal forms of consciousness, including personification, symbols, as well as standards as " the measure of all things." This is evidenced, in particular, by phraseological combinations such as "motherland", "bring to the altar of the fatherland", where the images are based on the mythology of mother earth and the altar, perceived as a symbol of a sacrificial place. Such combinations cannot be explained on the basis of purely linguistic methods and limitations in the choice of partner words, which determine the reproducibility of such, for example, clichéd and stereotypical combinations as "to die for the motherland, fatherland, fatherland"; "Faith and truth to happen to the motherland, fatherland, fatherland" are based on the personification of these social concepts as a "holy" female or male deity, for whom they feel holy love, for whom it is fitting to serve, for the sake of which they sacrifice life and the like (cf. " die for the state"; "faithfully serve the ministry", etc.) (see: Telia, 1997, pp. 150-151).
VN Toporov writes about the structure of Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment" in connection with archaic schemes of mythological thinking (see Toporov, 1995, pp. 193-258). MM Bakhtin also wrote about this in his work "Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics" (1963). The use of such schemes, firstly, allowed the author to write down the entire huge volume of the content plan in the shortest possible way (saving is an important aspect of metaphorization). "Metaphorism is a natural consequence of the fragility of a person and the long-term conceived enormity of his tasks. With this discrepancy, he is forced to look at things in an eagle's vigilant manner and explain himself with instant and immediately understandable insights. This is poetry. Metaphorism is shorthand for a great personality, cursive of her spirit ... Poems were the quickest and most direct form of Shakespeare's expression. He resorted to them as a means of recording thoughts as soon as possible. It came to the point that in many of his poetic episodes, rough sketches for prose made in verse seem to be "(B. Pasternak) . The organization of a literary text based on the evoking of archetypal images (primodial images) considered as a kind of "sucks" of the countless recurring consequences of experience in the topoi of the human soul (psychic residua of numberless experiences of the same types), and the establishment of additional connections, pursues the same goals of economy. (Compare: Jung, 1928; Bodkin, 1958; Meletinsky, 1994; etc.). Secondly, thanks to the schemes of mythological thinking, it is possible to expand the novel space to the maximum, which is connected, first of all, with its significant structural restructuring, which makes it possible to attribute "Crime and Punishment" to a single "Petersburg text in Russian literature". All this together in many ways ensured the profound influence of the novel not only on Russian, but also on world literature.
In recent decades, literary studies such as the "space" of a given artistic text, a given writer, trend, "grand style", an entire genre, etc. have become common (and even fashionable). Each of these studies presupposes a certain repulsion, ("distinction") from some average-neutral space and contact - to a greater or lesser extent with specialized, that is, in one way or another individualized spaces. Each literary epoch, each major trend (school) builds its own space, but even for those within this era or trends, “one’s own” is evaluated primarily from the point of view of the general, unifying, consolidating, and this “one’s own” reveals its “individuality” only on the periphery , at the junctions with the other that preceded it, accompanies it or threatens it as its replacement in the near future. A writer who builds "his own" space most often positively or negatively takes into account the "general" space and in this sense depends on it. At the same time, the space built in these cases cannot be considered the result of rigid determinism on the part of any factors, excluding the author's plan and his intentions; but these intentions just allow the author to choose the type of space he needs and, if necessary, change it, switch to another type, and so on. (see: Toporov, 1995, p. 407).
Comment on the phrases and identify the metaphorical models used to describe the political and economic-financial situation in Russia:
1. For the sake of adults all local entertainment industry– DK, KDTS, restaurants, cafes – going to stay awake until morning. New Year's "harvest" the local artists will be even hotter than the metropolitan pop music, with the only difference being that the latter cut down heaps of "greenery", and the employees of the House of Culture sing and dance exclusively for the soul - according to the director Olga Buikova, the mass workers are not entitled to an increase in salary (Trud-7. 28.12.05).
2. I happened to attend many such events: from pretentious molasses pouring from high stands, makes our brother slightly nauseous, who then betrays (but where can you go?) On TV screens and pages of newspapers (Trud-7. 28.12.05).
3. However, in Ukraine, many still do not believe that training will end on January 1 and Gazprom will really spin "faucet"(AiF. 2005. No. 52).
4. Russia should become a leader in the global energy sector, trendsetter in energy innovations and new technologies (AiF. 2005. No. 52).
5. To "energy hunger" has not become a nationwide phenomenon, it is necessary to accelerate the construction of new energy facilities, to intensify the process of updating the worn-out infrastructure (AiF. 2005. No. 52).
6. In change apartment neighbors were those who lived and worked in Russia for centuries: Tatars, Kalmyks, Bashkirs, Udmurts. We shared with them all the "hostile whirlwinds" of the twentieth century, and then all hopes and hardships of perestroika, shock therapy, privatization ... (AiF. 2005. No. 51).
7. And today in our empty hostel shouts are heard more and more often: "Russia - for the Russians!" What streets do they come from? Is it only from the mouth teenagers poisoned by Nazi propaganda? Is it only in the speeches of politicians who want to weld dubious and dangerous capitalist?(AiF. 2005. No. 51).
8. For decades "building communism" power saved on the people, and above all on the Russians. Because they are the majority. Is it because behind the cries of national pride modestly Russian poverty is silent... (AiF. 2005. No. 51).
9. "We ourselves we kindle the fire of civil war in our house when we excite anti-Islamic sentiments,” Vladlen Volkov writes to us from Samara (AiF. 2005. No. 51).
10. Today, according to experts, Russia has sufficient potential - both scientific, and managerial, and technological, to lead world energy race(AiF. 2005. No. 52).
11. On May 15, 1997, Boris Yeltsin issued Decree No. 484, obliging servants of the people to report to the Russians (AiF. 2005. No. 51).
12. One of stones that dragged the oligarch to the bottom, turned out to be his desire for efficiency in any business (AiF. 2005. No. 51).
13. But the oligarch is the only one who cannot enter into this dispute and tell the truth. And if he prisoner of silence, did this, speaking publicly, he was neither heard nor understood (AiF. 2005. No. 51).
14. Enough to see how the current Ukrainian authorities are fussing to NATO officials. Yes, and NATO will do anything, if only faster take over Ukraine(AiF. 2005. No. 51).
15. And in general, our banks, compared to Western ones - faint dwarfs(AiF. 2005. No. 51).
16. These businesses are the main donors regional budget.
17. Village area on donation needle.
18. The budget must stop being free feeder.
19. Large amounts owned by Aeroflot, swirled and washed.
20. Last 9 months Russia extinguished external debts only at the expense of their own income.
21. Japan is not going freeze loans for Russia.
Task 5. Euphemization of speech
Comment on the use of euphemisms in the following phrases (identify the purpose, scope and linguistic means of euphemism):
1. Was announced, not loudly, not publicly, the collection of gifts for children from low-income families, and there are many of them in the lyceum - about a third of the students are brought up by single mothers (Trud-7. 28.12.05).
2. As we were informed in the press service of the Federal Security Service of the Omsk region, on December 24 during a joint operational-search activity employees of military counterintelligence and the Internal Affairs Directorate were detained cadet of the Tank Engineering Institute (Trud-7. 28.12.05).
3. Explosive material seized, the cadet was taken into custody (Labor–7. 28.12.05).
4. More than a hundred Omsk residents died in the first week of 2005. Almost all tragic cases are connected with excessive drinking(Labor–7. 28.12.05).
5. An unusual New Year's campaign is being held by the Zvenigov social service center: to feed children from dysfunctional families, in which the taste of such a delicacy, alas, is little known (Labor–7. 28.12.05).
6. From them, like from bricks, a house is formed, which by the New Year tree will be dismantled by tiles by children from poor families, disabled people, children from a social rehabilitation center for minors, where the children of drinking parents found temporary shelter (Trud-7. 28.12.05).
7. Evolve dementia begins, as described in the popular medical literature, on average from 55 years old (Labor–7. 28.12.05).
8. Based on the results of 30 years research work with a group of people old age conducted at our institute, I can say that in some people, even at 80–90 years old, the brain in terms of its parameters practically does not differ from the brain of younger people (Trud-7. 28.12.05).
9. Due to a fatal judicial and medical error, Machal Lalung, a resident of the northeastern Indian state of Assam, being quite normal, spent almost 55 years in asylum for the insane(Labor–7. 28.12.05).
10. To test this hypothesis, doctors conducted a simple experiment. fifty overweight women together with the drug, a microscopic air bubble was introduced (Trud-7. 28.12.05).
11. Therefore, while the London newspaper The Times offers plump ladies try to get rid of at least part of the accumulated fat (Labor-7. 28.12.05).
12. On the other hand, each country has developed many of its own disaster response. The exchange of information will make it possible to quickly apply the best technology in this or that situation (AiF. 2005. No. 51).
13. As a result of our joint with the Central Bank action the situation has improved significantly. A number of banks have corrected their "fake" interest rates in advertising (AiF. 2005. No. 51).
14. If herpes chooses a “favorite” place sexual organs, the normal sex life, psychological discomfort develops, developing into family troubles (AiF. 2005. No. 52).
Literature
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For reference:
The Russian language is by origin connected with the common Slavic language, which stood out from the Indo-European base language. On the basis of the common Slavic language, East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic languages were formed. East Slavic (Old Russian): Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian.
Formation of the Old Russian literary language. There are different theories of the origin of the Russian literary language. It is traditionally believed that the spread and development of Russian writing and Russian literature begins after the official adoption of Christianity. The Russian literary language is the Church Slavonic (Old Church Slavonic) language transferred to Russian soil. The Old Church Slavonic language was created by the works of Cyril and Methodius. Formally, the Old Church Slavonic language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, is part of the South Slavic language group; it is based on ancient Bulgarian and ancient Macedonian dialects. Old Church Slavonic existed only in written form. The theory of the Old Slavonic origin of the Russian literary language (A.A. Shakhmatov, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay) The theory of the folk-East Slavonic origin of the Russian literary language (S.P. Obnorsky). Sources of the formation of the Russian literary language: oral speech of the Eastern Slavs, oral poetry, state-business language, elements of the Church Slavonic language. Kiev Koine. Koine is a single, common language. Theory of V.V. Vinogradov. Two varieties of the literary language: book-Slavonic type and folk-literary type.
Russian language of the eighteenth century. The use of the so-called Slavic-Russian language. Democratization of language. Liberation from the influence of the Church Slavonic language. Enrichment of the Russian language at the expense of Western European languages. Formation of scientific language, its terminology. Propaganda of the Russian language. Growth of patriotic sentiments. The task is to create a single national Russian language. The role of M.V. Lomonosov in the creation of the Russian literary language: the opening of a university in Moscow; "Russian Grammar" by Lomonosov; stylistic theory of Lomonosov; limiting the use of Old Church Slavonicisms; development of Russian terminology.
XIX century. Disputes about what is considered the basis of the Russian national language. N.M. Karamzin and his followers. A.S. Shishkov and Slavophiles. The 19th century is the silver age of Russian literature and the Russian language. N.V. Gogol, M.Yu. Lermontov, I.A. Goncharov, F.M. Dostoevsky and others. A.S. Pushkin is the creator of the modern Russian literary language. Principle proportionality and conformity. Russian journalism (V.G. Belinsky, D.I. Pisarev, N.A. Dobrolyubov and others). Proceedings of A.Kh.Vostokov, F.I.Buslaev, A.A.Potebni, F.F.Fortunatov. Edition of the dictionary by V.I.Dal.
Russian language of the Soviet period. Two processes in the Russian language: part of the vocabulary goes into passive ( tsar, district, gymnasium, policeman, merchant class, clerk, theologian and etc.); the birth of new words, the appearance of abbreviations ( police, agro-industry, Budenovets, provincial committee, pioneer, Central Committee, KGB) Interference of the opposite. Two lexical systems. The principle of nomination is the renaming of the denotation as a means of influencing public consciousness.
Russian language of the late twentieth century. Destruction of two lexical systems. Deactualization of words, the meanings of which are associated with Soviet realities. Returning to the use of the vocabulary of the former uncommon ( governor, lyceum, high school student etc.) Neutralization of socially restrictive connotations of words like business, owner, millionaire and others. Connotations are secondary associations of words, evaluative, subjective, emotional in nature, as a rule, they are not reflected in dictionaries. Metaphor as a semantic device, which is the transfer of a name based on similarity. The use of metaphor as a means of assessing the socio-political situation in the country. Activation of the process of borrowing: the need to name new realities; differentiation of close, but different concepts; borrowing technologies, areas of production, areas of knowledge and terminology; perception of a foreign word as beautiful-sounding, scientific. Roughness and jargon of speech. Activation of the invective genre. Euphemization of speech as a way of indirect mitigating naming of phenomena, actions and signs. Features of the functioning of the Russian language at the end of the 20th century: diversity and multiplicity of participants in mass communication; lack of censorship; the predominance of spontaneous speech; democratization of speech and the decline of its culture; variety of communication situations; dialogicity and personal beginning in speech.
Topic 2. Language and speech
1. Semiotics. Language as a system.
2. The functions of the language and the forms of its existence.
3. Speech, its varieties. Functional styles of speech.
It can be represented by: 1) a direct directive, including elements of metaphorization, intimization and stylization; 2) call; 3) expressive statement; 4) statement. RYAZ 2003 1 23. Terminology based on metaphorization) according to the function or emotional [colour?] of common words: - to be uplifted by the force of the air current. Jarg. pilots. S. Ozhegov Zap. book. // Dictionary 2001 448.
Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language. - M.: Dictionary publishing house ETS http://www.ets.ru/pg/r/dict/gall_dict.htm. Nikolay Ivanovich Epishkin [email protected] . 2010 .
See what "metaphorization" is in other dictionaries:
Metaphorization- The acquisition of a metaphorical meaning by a word (metaphor) ... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology
metaphorization- expansion of the semantic volume of the word due to the emergence of figurative meanings in it and the strengthening of its expressive ... Explanatory Translation Dictionary
Metaphor- (from the Greek μεταφορά transfer) a trope or speech mechanism consisting in the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects, phenomena, etc., to characterize or name an object included in another class, or name another ... ... Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary
Artistic and figurative speech concretization- - this is a specific property of the artist. speech, which distinguishes it from all other varieties of linguistic communication. It manifests itself in such an organization of linguistic means in the speech fabric of the artist, deliberately created according to the laws of art. works, ... ... Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language
Language picture of the world- The linguistic picture of the world, historically formed in the everyday consciousness of a given language community and reflected in the language, is a set of ideas about the world, a certain way of perceiving and arranging the world, conceptualizing reality. ... ... Wikipedia
Ontophany of freedom- (from ontos - being, being and phania - manifestation) realization of the ontological impulse. In nature as such, without man and his consciousness, cognition and activity, there is no freedom. There are only causal connections and other determinations. According to Kant... Projective Philosophical Dictionary
VALUE- (reference) 1) The process of translating relevant information (meaning) into concret. sign form (a sign or a sequence of signs). 2) Activities for the implementation of this process. O. is carried out by means of the language of culture ... ... Encyclopedia of cultural studies
METAPHOR- METAPHOR, metaphor (Greek metaphorá), type of path, transferring the properties of one object (phenomenon or aspect of being) to another, according to the principle of their similarity in any respect or in contrast. Unlike comparison, where both terms are present ... ... Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary
Brigade C- The origin of the C Brigade, as well as the Bravo group, should be considered 1979 and the Postscript group, where Garik Sukachev and Zhenya Khavtan played together for some time. But in 1983, Sukachev, leaving the song White Day as a gift to Havtan, left, and after ... ... Russian rock. Small encyclopedia
Pshibos Julian- Przybos (Przyboś) Julian (03/05/1901, Gvoznica, Rzeszow Voivodeship, ≈ 10/06/1970, Warsaw), Polish poet. Graduated from the Jagiellonian University (1924). Published since 1922. In the first collections of poems ("Screws", 1925; "Both Hands", 1926) implemented ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Books
- The creative potential of Russian grammar, Remchukova E.N. This monograph examines the creative potential of Russian grammar in different types of Russian speech - colloquial, artistic, scientific and journalistic, newspaper and journalistic, in ...