SNS accounts are divided into. System of National Accounts (SNA). The concept of the system of national accounts
The system of national accounts and the history of its creation
The main absolute macroeconomic indicators are contained in the system of national accounts. The System of National Accounts (its full name is the System of National Product and Income Accounts) was developed in the late 20s by a group of American scientists, employees of the National Bureau of Economic Research, under the guidance of the future laureate Nobel Prize Simon Kuznets.
Attempts to develop a system of macroeconomic indicators to assess the state of the national economy began to be made in different countries during the First World War in order to assess the military and economic potential of the warring powers. They were further developed in the mid-1920s during a period of rapid growth in the economies of developed countries (the so-called prosperity period) in order to predict further trends in economic development. Moreover, the research was carried out not only in a private organization specially created in the early 1920s in the United States - the National Bureau of Economic Research, where this work was headed by the famous American economist Wesley Clair Mitchell, who studied the problems of the economic cycle, which is impossible in the absence of a system of macroeconomic indicators.
In parallel, work in this direction was also carried out in Soviet Russia in the All-Russian (and later All-Union) Council of the National Economy - the Supreme Economic Council - in connection with the need to develop five-year plans for the development of the country's economy, as well as to assess trends in the development of the world economy and the prospects for world revolution. In October 1929, a crash broke out on the New York Stock Exchange, which marked the beginning of the deepest and longest world economic crisis - the Great Crash or Great Depression of 1929-1933. In early 1930, the US Congress adopted a resolution on the need to develop a system of indicators (indicators) that would allow us to assess the state of the American economy. In fact, such a system has already been created. After the Second World War, most countries, in accordance with the recommendations of the United Nations, began to use the methodology for calculating macroeconomic indicators embedded in the System of National Accounts, which makes it possible to make macroeconomic comparisons for different countries of the world. Russia (USSR) started using this technique since 1987.
The system of national accounts is a set of statistical macroeconomic indicators that characterize the value of the total product (output) and total income, allowing to assess the state of the national economy. The SNA contains three main indicators of total output (output): gross national product (GNP); gross domestic product (GDP); net national product (NNP) and three measures of total income: national income (NI); personal income (LD); disposable personal income (DPI).
Until the beginning of the 1980s, the main indicator characterizing the total volume of production was the indicator of the gross national product. However, in modern conditions, in connection with the internationalization of economic and economic relations and the difficulty of calculating the gross national product (GNP), since the national factors of production of each country are used in many other countries of the world, the main indicator of total output has become gross domestic product (GDP).
Correlation of indicators in the system of national accounts
As already noted, the main indicators in the SNA are three indicators of total product: gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), net national product (NNP) and three indicators of total income: national income (NI), personal income (PD). ), disposable personal income (DPI).
GNP = GDP + NFD
Respectively,
GDP = GNP - NFD
The value of net factor income is the difference between the income received by citizens (residents) of a given country on their own (national) factors of production in other countries and the income received by foreigners (non-residents) on their own (foreign) factors of production in this country. This difference can be either a positive value (if citizens of a given country received more income in other countries than foreigners in this country, in which case GNP is greater than GDP), or a negative value (if foreign citizens received more income in this country than citizens of this country received income abroad, then the GDP is greater than the GNP).
As for NNP (Net National Product - NNP), unlike GNP, which characterizes the national volume of production, this indicator characterizes the production potential of the economy, since it includes only net investment and does not include recovery investment (depreciation). Therefore, in order to obtain NNP, depreciation should be subtracted from GNP: NNP \u003d GNP - A. NNP can be calculated both for expenses and for income.
Spending NNP = consumer spending (C) + net investment spending (I net) + government purchases (G) + net exports (Xn)
NNP by income = wages + rent + interest + owner income + corporate profits + indirect taxes
National income (National Income - NI) is the total income earned by owners economic resources, i.e. the amount of factor income. It can be obtained: a) either, if indirect taxes are deducted from NNP: ND = NNP - indirect taxes; b) or, if we sum up all factor incomes:
NI = wages + rent + interest + owner income + corporate profits
Personal income (Personal Income - PI), in contrast to national income, is the total income received by the owners of economic resources. To calculate the FA, it is necessary to subtract from the FA everything that is not available to households, i.e. is part of the collective, not personal income, and add everything that increases their income, but is not included in the ND:
DI = NI - Social Security Contributions - Corporate Income Tax - Corporate Retained Earnings + Transfers + Interest on Government Bonds
LD = ND - social security contributions - corporate profits + dividends + transfers + interest on government bonds
The third type of total income - disposable personal income (Disposal Personal Income - DPI) - is the income used, i.e. owned by households. It is less than personal income by the amount of individual taxes that the owners of economic resources must pay in the form of direct (primarily income) taxes:
RLD = LD - individual taxes
Households spend their disposable income on consumption (consumption - C) and savings (saving - S):
There are the following types of savings:
- personal savings or household savings, which can be calculated as the difference between personal disposable income and personal consumption expenditure:
S personal = RLD - C;
- business savings (savings of business), including depreciation and retained earnings of corporations, which serve as internal sources of financing and the basis for expanding production;
- private savings, i.e. private sector savings, consisting of the sum of household savings and firm savings, i.e. personal savings and business savings:
S private = S personal + S business ;
- government savings, which take place in the event of a surplus (surplus) of the state budget, when budget revenues exceed expenditures.
S government = budget revenues - budget expenditures > 0.
State budget revenues include all tax revenues, profits of state enterprises, privatization revenues, etc.:
Budget revenues = individual taxes + corporate income tax + indirect business taxes + social security contributions + state enterprise profits + privatization revenues Budget expenditures = government purchases of goods and services + transfers + interest on government bonds.
Budget balance = budget revenues - budget expenditures
- national savings, which is the sum of private savings and government savings:
S national = S private + S government
- foreign sector savings take place in the event of a deficit (negative balance) of the country's trade balance, when imports exceed exports, i.e. net exports are negative. This means that the income of the foreign sector from the sale of its goods and services to a given country (for this country, this is the cost of imports) exceeds the cost of buying goods and services of this country (for it, this is the income from exports):
S foreign = Im - Ex > 0
The sum of savings of all sectors (private, public and foreign) is equal to the value of total investment
I = S private + S government + S foreign = S + (T - G) + (Im - Ex)
Notes. Sometimes in SNA tasks it is required to determine the amount of seizures and injections. It should be kept in mind that exemptions include: private savings, including personal savings and business savings; all types of taxes, including social security contributions; import; injections include: net investment spending, government purchases of goods and services, dividends, transfers, interest on government bonds, exports.
The SNA indicators quantify the total product and total income, but they do not reflect the quality of life, the level of well-being, which grow more slowly than GDP and ND, which do not take into account the negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution and economic growth. To characterize the level of well-being, as a rule, such indicators are used as a) the value of GDP per capita (GDP per capita), i.е. GDP / population of the country; or b) the value of national income per capita (NI per capita), i.e. ND / population of the country. To allow for cross-country comparisons, these figures are calculated in US dollars.
However, these indicators are very imperfect and fail to accurately reflect the quality of life. Their main disadvantages are that:
- they are averaged (if one person has two cars, and the other has none, then on average everyone has one car);
- they do not take into account many qualitative characteristics of the level of well-being (two countries with the same ND per capita may have different levels of education, life expectancy, morbidity and mortality rates, crime rates, etc.);
- they ignore the different purchasing power of the dollar in different countries (one dollar in the US and, for example, in India, you can buy a different amount of goods);
- they do not take into account the negative consequences of economic growth (the degree of environmental pollution, noise, gas pollution, etc.).
In order to more accurately assess the level of well-being in 1972, two American economists - Nobel Prize winner James Tobin and William Nordhaus (co-author of Nobel Prize winner Paul Samuelson in writing the world-famous textbook "Economics") - proposed a methodology for calculating an indicator called "Net Economic Wealth" (Net Economic Welfare). This indicator includes the valuation of everything that improves well-being, but is not taken into account in GDP (value of goods) (for example: the amount of free time for raising the level of education, raising children, self-improvement; working for oneself; improving the level and quality of medical care, reducing the level of environmental pollution, etc.).
But when calculating this indicator, the value of everything that worsens the quality of life, reduces the level of well-being (value of bads), (for example: the level of morbidity and mortality, the quality of education, life expectancy, the level of crime, the degree of environmental pollution, negative consequences of urbanization, etc.).
System of National Accounts (SNA) - modern system information used in almost all countries of the world to describe and analyze the development of a market economy at the macro level. The indicators and classifications of this system reflect the structure of the market economy, its institutions and mechanisms of functioning. The SNA was created about 50 years ago in the most developed capitalist countries, when there was a need for government bodies in the information necessary to regulate a market economy.
In the recent past, in the USSR, another system of indicators was used to describe and analyze macroeconomics - the balance of the national economy (BNE). BNH was based on Marxist concepts of social reproduction and is designed to analyze such an economic model, which is based on public ownership of the means of production and central planning. Therefore, when carrying out economic reforms in Russia and other CIS countries, it was necessary to move from the balance of the national economy to the system of national accounts.
The SNA uses some important techniques accounting(for example, the principle of double entry of transactions), and its goals are in many ways similar to those of accounting: providing information for making management decisions. However, in accounting, information is used to make decisions at the enterprise (company) level, while in the SNA it is used to make decisions related to the economy as a whole. In a sense, the SNA is accounting for the economy as a whole. In this regard, it should be recalled that the term “national accounting” was proposed about 50 years ago by the Dutch economist W. Cliff, who understood national accounting as a system of tables resembling accounting accounts and balance sheets containing a systematic description of the economy at the macro level. A great contribution to the development of the SNA was made by J. Keynes, who believed that the SNA is a system of interrelated indicators (income, consumption, savings) and its data should be of interest to government bodies when making decisions on economic policy and developing measures to regulate the market economy. economy.
In a modern market economy, various economic transactions are carried out: enterprises acquire raw materials and materials, produce a variety of products, pay wages to workers and employees and taxes to the government, borrow money from banks, invest free and borrowed resources in machinery and equipment, etc. In addition to enterprises, other economic entities participate in the economic process: financial institutions (banks, investment funds, Insurance companies), government bodies, households, various non-profit organizations (trade unions, political, religious organizations, etc.). They also perform a wide variety of transactions with goods and services, money, loans, stocks and other financial instruments. All these economic entities interact with each other, exchange goods, services and assets in the process of creating new value. In order to understand what is happening in the economy and determine the most important results of the economic process, it is necessary to somehow organize information both about the economic entities themselves and about the various operations that they carry out, as well as about their assets and liabilities. This ordering is carried out within the framework of the SNA with the help of special rules and procedures. Its goals are: a description of the general picture of the state and development of the economy at the macro level, establishing relationships between the most important macroeconomic indicators, such as gross domestic product (GDP), final consumption, investment, savings, disposable income, etc. Information obtained on the basis of such ordering, you need:
- government bodies to make decisions on macroeconomic policy issues;
- entrepreneurs and businessmen who wish to better navigate the general macroeconomic situation in which their enterprises and companies operate;
- international organizations (UN, IMF, World Bank, OECD) To solve various issues related to the organization of international economic cooperation (for example, providing assistance to countries for their economic development, providing loans, etc.).
International organizations not only collect information on the most important indicators of the SNA, but are also more involved in the theory and methodology of the SNA, the development of international standards in the field of national accounting. Currently, this standard is the 1993 SNA, approved by the UN Statistical Commission. As a result of the further development of national accounting, the 1993 SNA replaced the previously existing 1968 SNA, while taking into account 25 years of experience in applying the SNA in various countries of the world and developments on certain theoretical and methodological issues. Approved by the UN in 1993, the International Standard in the field of national accounting marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of the SNA, which, apparently, will continue for about 10-15 years. The main efforts at this stage will be focused on the introduction of the new SNA into the practice of UN member countries, which should inevitably stimulate further research in this area.
In order for the ordering within the SNA of various data on economic transactions and economic entities (i.e. distribution into homogeneous groups) to be most effective and contribute to the identification of macroeconomic patterns and relationships, it must be based on some political economy concepts, as well as postulates that determine the rules information processing. According to one of these concepts, it is necessary to define the boundaries of "economic production", that is, the areas where the production of gross domestic product and the creation of national income take place.
It is known that the concept of economic production has undergone significant changes in economics as the productive forces have developed. At one time, its formation was influenced by the works of F. Caene, A. Smith, K. Marx, A. Marshall and other prominent economists. In the balance sheet of the national economy, which was used in the USSR to analyze macroeconomics, only material production belonged to the sphere of economic production. In the sphere of intangible services (management, defense, health care, education, etc.), according to the BNH concepts, only the redistribution of national income and the final consumption of national income take place. The SNA uses a broader concept of economic production, which covers the production of almost all goods and services, with the exception of services provided by housewives for cooking, keeping homes clean, raising children, etc. This one exception is made for practical reasons, since the activity of housewives is very difficult to assess. Thus, according to the SNA concepts, economic production includes the following activities:
- production of goods, including goods for own consumption (for example, production of agricultural products for own consumption by farmers);
- provision of services for implementation;
- activities of financial intermediaries (banks, investment funds, insurance companies);
- the provision of non-market services by public administration institutions (collective services in the field of management - defense and individual services in the field of health, education, etc.);
- provision of non-market services by non-profit organizations serving households;
- the provision of services by hired servants (cooks, gardeners, drivers);
- provision of housing services by homeowners for their own consumption.
The scope of GDP production does not include changes in the environment (for example, the depletion of coal, oil and other minerals, air and water pollution, etc.), but activities aimed at protecting the environment are to be measured and included in GDP. Many experts in the field of macroeconomic analysis believe that when determining the results of economic activity and calculating GDP, negative changes in the environment should be taken into account. They are. .propose to calculate the indicator of "environmentally friendly GDP". Experimental calculations are being made in some countries to calculate GDP adjusted for mineral depletion, pollution, etc. However, in most countries it will take a long time to introduce such calculations into regular statistical practice.
Another important concept of the SNA, on which the calculation of the main indicators of income (national income, disposable income, primary income, etc.) is based, reflects the political economy content of the “income” category. It was developed by the English economist J. Hicks. In accordance with this concept, income represents the coo the maximum amount of money that can be spent on the purchase of consumer goods and services without becoming poorer, that is, without reducing one's accumulated wealth and without incurring any financial obligations. The next concept of the SNA is to determine the role of various factors of production in value creation. In contrast to the Marxist theory, according to this concept, land and capital are considered as factors involved in the creation of value along with labor. It should be noted that the new 1993 SNA does not explicitly refer to factors of production and factor costing. This is largely due to the desire of the authors of the SNA to bypass the controversial Questions on this topic. The concept of factor income was replaced in the 5993 SNA by the concept of primary income, which is very close in content to the category of factor income, but at the same time has some differences. In this regard, it should be noted that in some countries, such as the United States, until recently, national income was calculated at factor cost, i.e. at market prices, minus indirect taxes, but with the addition of subsidies on products. This practice is a well-known deviation from the international GHC standard, which recommends that all indicators be valued at market prices. At the same time, the SNA provides for the possibility of calculating some indicators at factor cost.
An important feature of the SNA is the grouping of all economic entities into institutional sectors. The 1993 SNA distinguishes five sectors:
- non-financial corporations and quasi-corporations;
- financial corporations and quasi-corporations;
- public administration;
- households;
- non-profit organizations serving households.
All economic entities belong to one of these sectors in accordance with the function they perform in the economic process. For example, the function of non-financial corporations is to produce goods and non-financial services for sale on the market at prices that reimburse production costs; the function of financial corporations is to accumulate free financial resources and providing them on certain conditions to investors. Thus, financial corporations play the role of intermediaries between those who save resources and those who use them to finance investments.
The function of public administration institutions is to carry out the redistribution of national income and wealth, as well as to provide free services both to society as a whole (governance, defense, scientific research, etc.) and to individuals or groups of the population (education, health care, etc.). .d.).
Units included in the household sector participate in production by providing their labor force and purchase goods and services in the market. In addition, households own small unincorporated businesses (farms, family restaurants, shops, etc.). These unincorporated enterprises produce goods and services for sale on the market, but sometimes in part for their own consumption by the owners of unincorporated enterprises. The financial result of the activities of unincorporated enterprises is mixed income, which includes both elements of profit and wages. Unincorporated enterprises are included in the household sector for practical reasons, since in practice it is difficult to separate the income and expenses of unincorporated enterprises from the income and expenses of their owners.
The function of non-profit organizations serving households (social, political, religious organizations) is to provide free services to members of these organizations.
Thus, the uncountable number of economic entities is summarized in the SNA into five relatively homogeneous groups. For all sectors, the SNA provides a standard set of accounts that record economic transactions related to production, education, distribution and redistribution of income, saving and accumulation, acquisition of financial assets and incurring financial liabilities. Based on the information contained in sectoral accounts, it is possible to analyze the economic and financial situation of individual sectors of the economy, as well as the relationships between them in the economic process.
The most important accounts (production account and income generation account) are also compiled in the SNA for sectors of the economy, i.e. for sets of homogeneous units of enterprises and organizations engaged in similar activities (for example, the production of industrial, agricultural, construction goods, etc.). ). The information contained in the sectoral accounts, as well as in the sectoral accounts, is ultimately used to obtain the so-called aggregates, i.e. the most important macroeconomic indicators:
- gross national income (GNI);
- gross national disposable income (GNDI);
- final consumption;
- gross capital formation;
- the balance of exports and imports;
- national savings;
- net lending and net borrowing;
- national wealth.
GDP is the central indicator of the SNA, which characterizes the value of final goods and services produced by the residents of the country for a given period. GDP is calculated at end-use market prices, i.e. at prices paid by the buyer, including all trade markups and taxes on products (VAT, excises, etc.). GDP is used to characterize the results of production, the level of economic development, economic growth rates, analysis of labor productivity in the economy, etc. Very often this indicator is used in combination with other indicators, for example, if the ratio of the state budget deficit to GDP is analyzed, etc. The GDP indicator is calculated, as its name implies, on a gross basis, before deducting the consumption of fixed capital, which is associated with practical difficulties in obtaining reliable data on the consumption of fixed capital. However, the SNA recognizes that from a theoretical point of view, net domestic product is more correct.
GNI is the sum of primary incomes received by residents* of a given country in a given period. GNI differs from GDP in both qualitative and quantitative terms. In qualitative terms, the difference between GDP and GNI is that the first indicator characterizes the flow of final goods and services, or newly created value, while the second indicator represents the flow of primary income received by residents of a given country as a result of their participation in the creation of the country's GDP. , as well as the GDP of other countries. Quantitatively, GNI differs from GDP in the balance of primary income received from abroad or transferred abroad. Primary income in the SNA is usually attributed to wages, profits, income from property, as well as taxes on production and imports. Primary income from abroad or paid abroad usually includes wages and property income such as interest and dividends, as well as reinvested income from foreign direct investment.
GNI differs from GNI in the balance of current redistributive payments (current transfers) transferred abroad or received from abroad. These transfers may include humanitarian aid, gifts to relatives received from abroad, fines and penalties paid by residents abroad, etc. Thus, GNDI covers all income received by residents of a given country as a result of primary and secondary distribution of income. GNDI can be obtained by summing the gross disposable income of all five sectors of the economy. GNI is subdivided into final consumption expenditure and national saving.
Final consumption includes final consumption expenditures of: households; government controlled; non-profit organizations serving households. The final consumption expenditures of the government and non-profit organizations serving households essentially coincide with the cost of non-market (free) services provided by these organizations and institutions.
Gross capital formation covers fixed capital formation, changes in inventories, and net acquisition of valuables (jewelry, antiques, etc.).
The balance of exports and imports is an important element of the final use of GDP. Exports are valued at FOB prices and imports at CIF prices.
The sum of final consumption, gross capital formation and the balance of exports and imports gives GDP by the final use method. Theoretically, this value should coincide with the GDP calculated by the production method, that is, by summing up the gross value added of all sectors or branches of the economy. Value added is defined at basic prices, i.e. at prices that include subsidies on products, but do not include taxes on products, so to move from the amount of value added to GDP, taxes on products must be added to it and subsidies on products must be excluded. GDP can also be calculated by the distribution method, i.e. by summing up the wages paid by enterprises and organizations of a given country to their workers and employees, regardless of whether they are residents or non-residents of this country, gross profit and gross mixed income, taxes ( net of subsidies) for production and imports.
National saving is an important indicator of the SNA. It can be obtained by subtracting final consumption from the GNI. Saving is a source of funding for accumulation, i.e., the growth of fixed assets, inventories, values, etc. If we abstract from the existence of other countries, then national saving is equal to the value of national accumulation.
Net lending / net borrowing is an indicator that characterizes the amount of financial resources temporarily provided by a given country to other countries or temporarily received from them.
National wealth is the sum of the net capital of all economic entities in the country. In other words, national wealth is equal to the sum of all the country's assets (non-financial and financial) minus financial liabilities. Residents' financial claims on each other cancel each other out, and ultimately national wealth includes (along with non-financial assets) financial claims on other countries less financial liabilities to other countries.
All of these important indicators are mutually consistent, and therefore they can be used in combination with each other. They complement each other, revealing various aspects of the economic process.
The relationship between the most important macroeconomic indicators of the SNA is presented below:
A. Gross domestic product
B. Consumption of fixed capital
C. Net domestic product (A-B)
D. Balance of primary income received from abroad
E. Gross National Income (A+D)
E. Net National Income (D-B)
G. Balance of current transfers received from abroad
3. Gross national disposable income (G+W)
I. Final consumption
K. National savings (3rd)
K. Balance of capital transfers received from abroad
M. Sources of investment financing (C+L)
H. Gross capital formation (as an element of GDP)
O. Net acquisition of non-produced intangible non-financial assets
P. Net lending/net borrowing (M-N-O)
Recording economic transactions in the SNA accounts reveals a number of important relationships between the most significant economic indicators. These relationships can be represented as equalities. The following are the most important of these equalities:
GDP = C + I + E,
where GDP - gross domestic product; С - final consumption; I - investments (gross capital formation, growth in inventories, net acquisition of valuables); E - net export.
GDP = W + Q + R + P + T,
where W - wages paid by enterprises and organizations of a given country to their workers and employees, regardless of whether they are residents or non-residents of this country; Q - deductions for social insurance; R - gross profit; P - gross mixed income; T - taxes on production and imports (net of subsidies).
GDP = D + N - U,
where D is the value added of all sectors of the economy in basic prices; N - taxes on products; U - subsidies for products.
GNI = GDP + LM,
where GNI - gross national income; L - primary income received by residents of this country abroad (wages, interest, dividends, reinvested income from foreign direct investment); M - primary income transferred by residents of this country abroad.
GNDI = GNI + B - G,
where GNDI is gross national disposable income; B - current transfers received by residents of this country from abroad; G - current transfers transferred by residents of this country abroad.
where C - final consumption; S - national savings.
S + K \u003d f + Z + J - O,
where S - national savings; K is the balance of capital transfers received from abroad; I - accumulation of produced assets; Z - accumulation of non-produced intangible assets (patents, licenses, etc.); J - net lending/net borrowing; O - consumption of fixed capital.
where J - net lending/net borrowing; F - acquisition of financial assets from non-residents; Y - acceptance of financial obligations to non-residents.
Source - Economic statistics. 2nd ed., additional: Textbook / Ed. Yu.N. Ivanova. - M.: INFRA-M, 2002. - 480 p.
To determine the results of economic activity of any economic entity, the amounts of income and expenses for a certain period of time reflected in its statements are compared. The results of the comparison allow us to draw a conclusion about its economic condition and make the right management decisions. For the country's economy, the same role is assigned to national accounting, which is the basis for analyzing the economic state of the country.
Purpose of national accounting- to give quantitative information about the production, distribution and use of the social product as an aggregate indicator of the economic results of the country's national economy.
To analyze complex macroeconomic relationships, a system of complementary indicators is needed, because the quality of management depends on the degree of reliability and efficiency of information flows.
System of National Accounts- a set of basic macroeconomic indicators that characterize the conditions, processes and results of the national production of goods and services.
F. Quesnay is considered the founder of national accounting: in 1758 he first developed a macroeconomic balance, in which social production was studied from the point of view of both the cost and natural-material content of the social product, and the main classes of society (production and non-production).
National accounting as a means of analyzing the economy has been used since the late 1930s. XX century, but as a means of official statistics - after the end of the Second World War (in the USA, England, France, Germany, Sweden, Norway). The growing internationalization of national economies, integration processes in the world economy have necessitated the creation of a universal international system of national accounting. In 1950, the Simplified Standard SNA was adopted by the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (EEC). Three versions of the SNA were adopted in turn within the framework of the UN (1952-1953, 1968, 1993).
In the modern SNA The following key innovations stand out:
· breakdown of indicators by sectors of the economy;
· allocation of the financial sector and flows of financial assets;
introduction of property balances.
Since February 1993, a new improved standard has been in force, taking into account the characteristics of countries transitioning to a market economy.
In modern conditions, the SNA is an international standard for assessing the main economic indicators of countries for their comparative analysis.
The value of the SNA and its use in economic practice:
1) widespread use by the government and territorial authorities in the development of economic policy measures, models and forecasts;
2) use big companies to analyze market conditions and make strategic decisions;
3) use as an information base of scientific research to develop recommendations to the government;
4) use by international organizations that determine the quotas of countries in their financing.
There are a number of methodological principles for constructing the SNA:
All factors of production (labor, capital, land, entrepreneurial ability) are sources of value creation;
The sphere of production is an activity for the production of an economic good (goods and services), in which all sectors are equivalent (tangible and intangible production);
· the main indicators are of a balance character and reflect the process of value creation and movement;
· at the heart of balance constructions are groupings and classifications from the standpoint of individual objects and business entities;
· breakdown of the economy into sectors;
· use of accounting principles (system of accounts and correspondence of transactions, double entry, balance of assets and liabilities).
Added value- this is the value created by an economic unit (enterprise), which includes the costs of producing a product (wages, depreciation, other costs) and profit. The cost of consumed raw materials and materials purchased from suppliers (material costs) and payment for work, services from the outside, in the creation of which this enterprise did not take part, is not included in the value added. Consequently, added value - this is the gross output of the enterprise in market prices minus material costs. In the macroeconomic sense, this is the value created (added) at each intermediate stage of processing the country's gross product.
The national economy consists of a set of resident institutional units, which are the primary units of account in the SNA.
Institutional unit- an independent business entity, which is a legal entity and has a complete set of financial statements.
Residents(from lat. residens, residentis - sitting, remaining in place) - these are economic entities registered in a given country (individuals and legal entities) and engaged in economic activities on economic territory of this country, including enterprises with foreign investments, branches of foreign firms, etc., established in accordance with the legislation of this country.
Legal or individuals are considered residents of a given country if the center of their economic interests is connected with the economic territory of the country. This concept does not include persons who come to the country for a short period (less than a year) - tourists, artists, seasonal workers, etc. Employees of diplomatic missions and military personnel of other countries are also excluded. In general, the criteria for referring to the residents of the country are the permanence of the place of residence, location, place of management, place of registration.
If an economic entity does not have all the characteristics of an institutional unit, then additional criteria are used to identify it:
a) households do not maintain a complete set of accounts, but always manage their own resources, so they are considered institutional units;
b) units, other than households, that do not maintain a complete set of accounts (do not have an independent balance sheet) are those institutional units where their accounts are an integral part;
c) units that maintain a complete set of accounts but are not legal persons are among the institutional units that control them.
The set of institutional units with homogeneous production is called industry .
The industry breakdown is as follows:
1) industry;
2) construction;
3) agriculture, forestry, fisheries;
4) transport and communications;
5) trade, procurement, logistics and marketing;
6) other shaken material production;
7) branches of the sphere of non-material production.
In addition to the main industries, in accordance with the international classification, there are more than a hundred sub-sectors. But in the SNA, the focus is not on grouping by industry, but by sector.
A more enlarged grouping of the economy by sectors is central in the statistical model of the market economy. It is carried out in order to study the flow of income and expenses, changes in assets and liabilities in an institutional unit.
Institutional units are grouped according to sectors economy by functions performed, i.e. according to the type of economic behavior. The SNA distinguishes five domestic economic and one foreign economic sectors:
1. Sector of non-financial institutions
It includes business entities of a corporate nature (or similar to them) that produce goods and non-financial services with the aim of selling them on the market at prices that reimburse production costs.
2. Financial institutions sector
It includes banks, insurance companies, investment funds and other financial institutions whose main function is financial intermediation. Most of them reimburse their costs at the expense of the difference between the interest received for the provided financial resources and the interest paid for their attraction (margin).
3. Sector of government institutions (public administration)
It is formed at the expense of budgetary state institutional units, the main function of which is the redistribution of income and wealth and the provision of non-market services to society as a whole and to individual groups and individuals. These units are mainly characterized by budget financing, partly from income from their property.
4. Sector of non-profit institutions serving households
This includes public, political, trade union, religious organizations, the main function of which is to provide non-market services to the participants of these organizations. They are financed by contributions, donations, income from their property.
5. Household sector
This includes the population as the institutional units that lead the household, i.e. consumer activities. This sector includes small non-cooperative enterprises owned by households - small firms, small shops, etc., as well as self-employed persons. Their costs are covered by wages, property income, redistributive income, proceeds from the sale of their products.
6. Rest of the world
It reflects foreign economic relations and financial relationships with foreign institutional units to the extent that they carry out transactions with residents of this country.
Operation- this is the creation, movement or consumption (creation with a "-" sign) of goods, services, rights.
Unlike the grouping of economic entities, the grouping of economic transactions is carried out on the basis of a single criterion, i.e. they are grouped equally by industry and sector.
In general, they are divided into three groups:
1) transactions with goods and services;
2) distribution operations;
3) financial transactions.
Operations with goods and services and characterize their origin (domestically produced or imported) and use (intermediate and final consumption, exports, investments) during the period.
Distribution operations are divided into two types:
Distribution of income - operations related to the payment of wages, dividends, taxes, insurance and social payments;
Transfer of capital - operations to transfer the right to own registered securities, transfers (transfers) of currency and gold between countries.
Financial operations reflect changes in assets and liabilities associated with the movement of cash and various types of debt.
The economic transactions of institutional units are combined into accounts.
National accounts- these are balance constructions in the form of a system of interrelated indicators characterizing the production, distribution, redistribution and use of the final product and income in the economy. The SNA is a set of interrelated tables compiled in the form of accounts, acting as a way to streamline information about the national economy of the country.
In accordance with the principle of double entry, each economic transaction is reflected in the sets twice: in resources (debit) and in use (credit). The set of bilateral accounts forms a balance sheet. There are 10 accounts according to international standards.
In Ukraine, six accounts are currently used:
1) goods and services account- displays the process of formation of resources, products and services due to their production and import and their use for final consumption, accumulation, export;
2) production account- reflects the operations related to the production process. At the same time, production activity covers the activities of enterprises, organizations and individuals both in the sphere of material production and in the sphere of intangible services;
3) income generation account- distribution transactions are reflected that are directly related to the production process, which lead to the formation of the primary income of its participants: wages, net taxes on production, gross profit of enterprises and mixed incomes of the population;
4) income distribution account- reflects the total amount of income received and transferred by economic units as a result of production activities, from property, as well as as a result of redistribution processes. In the new UN SNA, this account is divided into two accounts: appropriation of primary income and secondary distribution of income;
5) disposable income account- reflects the final consumption expenditure of households, government agencies and non-government non-profit (public) organizations, and the remaining part of disposable income, which is gross saving;
6) capital cost account- shows the formation of resources for capital expenditures and their use for the accumulation of fixed assets and material working capital, the acquisition of land and intangible assets. The difference between the sum of resources and use characterizes the final financial result of economic activity in a given period.
The relationship diagram of the most important indicators of the SNA (see Table 1) is given for the macro level and each sector of macroeconomics. In this scheme, there is no account of goods and services, since it is not a "cross-cutting", i.e. is not compiled simultaneously for the national economy as a whole and its individual sectors.
The balance of the final financial result of economic activity (net loans and net debts) should, in principle, be equal to the balance of changes in financial assets and liabilities of the balancing indicator of the financial account, which characterizes the change in financial assets and liabilities by their types and allows us to analyze structural changes in the financial condition of the country or the sector of the national economy.
Table 1
Formation of national accounts
Usage | Resources | Indicators |
Production account | ||
Intermediate consumption Gross value added | Gross output | Gross output - Intermediate consumption = Gross value added |
Income generation account | ||
Compensation Net taxes on production Gross profit Gross mixed income | Gross value added | Gross value added - Compensation - Net taxes on production = Gross profit, gross mixed income |
Assignment account for primary income | ||
Property income Gross primary income | Gross profit, gross mixed income Property income, wages Net taxes on production | Gross profit, gross mixed income - balance of property income = gross primary income. |
Secondary distribution of income account | ||
Current transfers Gross disposable income | Gross primary income Current transfers received | Gross primary income + Balance of current transfers = Gross disposable income |
Disposable income account | ||
Final consumption expenditure Gross savings | Gross disposable income | Gross Disposable Income - Final Consumption Expenditures = Gross Savings |
Capital cost account | ||
Gross capital formation of fixed and current assets Net purchases of land, intangible assets Net loans Net debts | Gross saving | Gross saving - Gross fixed and working capital formation - Net purchases of land and intangible assets = Net loans Net debts |
financial account | ||
Acquisition of financial assets | Incurrence of financial liabilities Net loans Net debt |
For each sector and for the economy as a whole, special accounts are built: for each sector - 9 accounts (except for the "Rest of the World" sector - 2 accounts), for the entire economy - 6 accounts.
Institutional sector accounts(except for the Rest of the World sector):
1. Opening balance;
2. Production report;
3. Income generation account (exploitation account);
4. Income distribution account (income account);
5. Income use account;
6. Capital account (accumulation account);
7. Financial account;
8. Account of changes in the value of property;
9. Closing balance.
Rest of the World Sector Accounts:
1. Account of non-financial transactions;
2. Account of financial transactions.
Accounts for the country's economy as a whole:
1. Opening balance;
2. Account of goods, services and production;
3. Income and consumption account;
4. Accumulation account;
5. Account of value creation outside of production (revaluation account);
6. Concealing balance.
The accounts of all sectors are combined into consolidated national accounts.
The structure of the SNA includes the input-output table (intersectoral balance), introduced into macroeconomic analysis by the American economist Wassily Leontiev (1958).
- introductory lesson is free;
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- The cost of one lesson with a Russian-speaking teacher - from 600 rubles, with a native speaker - from 1500 rubles
System of National Accounts(SNS) is
section of static science;
· system of statistical indicators;
· the result of a special type of practical statistical activity, including the collection, processing, analysis and publication of statistical data.
Object of study system of national accounts is the country's economy as a set of economic units, industries, sectors, regions, the results and mechanism of its functioning, structure, internal and external relationships and patterns of development.
Like all sections of socio-economic statistics, the SNA studies, through a system of indicators, the quantitative side of phenomena in close connection with their qualitative side in the competitive conditions of place and time.
History of the SNS. The SNA emerged in the developed countries of the West in the late 1930s and early 1940s. twentieth century, when most economists realized the need state regulation economy and there was a need for statistical information for macroeconomic analysis. The terms "national accounts" and "national accounting" were proposed by the Dutch economist Van Kliff, in whose works the possibility of applying the concepts and principles of accounting to describe the economy as a whole was substantiated.
The main stages in the development of the methodology of the system of national accounts after the Second World War are associated with the development and introduction into statistical practice of international methodological standards for the SNA. The first SNA-53 standard was approved by the UN in 1953 and contained a limited number of accounts for the economy as a whole. In 1968, the UN Statistical Commission approved the second version of the international standard for the SNA. SNA-68 included new blocks of macroeconomic information (for example, indicators of the movement of financial resources), and also provided accounts for five sectors of the economy.
In 1993, the UN Statistical Commission approved the third version of the methodological standard for the SNA, five international organizations participated in its development: the UN, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Statistical Commission (Eurostat) . SNA-93 provides for the construction of accounts not only for the economy as a whole, its sectors and industries, but also for individual economic units. For this reason, during the development new version international standard discussed the issue of changing the name of the system of indicators.
In 2004, work began on updating the SNA-93 standard, carried out by an advisory group of experts on national accounts, which includes the most famous experts in the field of national accounts of various countries.
The main task solved on the basis of the SNA is in general terms, it can be formulated as meeting the needs of society and quantitative information about the financial and economic state and development of the country and individual elements of its economic system. Depending on the nature of information needs, two main types of such tasks can be conventionally distinguished: epistemological (cognitive) and pragmatic (practical).
Gnoseological tasks consist in the information support of science, theoretical research carried out in order to substantiate, formulate, test and refine theoretical concepts.
Pragmatic tasks are to provide the necessary data for applied analytical research, allowing to substantiate, implement and evaluate management decisions applied at the macro-, meso- and micro levels of the management system.
First of all, the task of providing information to state institutions of various levels is being solved, which contributes to the development of state socio-economic policy and the implementation of state management of the economy.
The SNA provides the information needs of supranational organizations such as the UN, IMF, World Bank, OECD. Information is provided at the request of these organizations in accordance with the country's international obligations, as well as at the request of foreign national statistical services in accordance with treaties and agreements on cooperation in the field of statistics.
Practical work on the construction and publication of the system of national accounts is carried out by state statistics bodies. The organization of statistical work is based on the principle of unity of the methodology for calculating indicators and the form of presenting SNA data on a national and international scale, which is achieved using national methodological statistical standards.
In Russia, the system of national accounts began to be introduced in the 90s. 20th century
Methodology for building a system of national accounts can be defined as a system of concepts, categories, principles and methods used to study the economy. The SNA methodology has a complex multi-level structure, it includes a systematic approach and other general scientific concepts and principles, economic theory and the theory of finance, as well as specifically statistical concepts and research methods that correspond to the characteristics of the subject.
Since the SNA is an integrated system of statistical indicators, since the main elements of its methodology are the provisions of the theory of statistical indicators. The content of these indicators is determined by the concepts and concepts of economic theory. At the core circuit diagram SNA lies economic turnover concept, recognized by most modern economic schools as a theoretical basis for the analysis of the economy. This theoretical model describes the functioning of the economy through the interaction of economic entities performing various economic functions (production, consumption, etc.).
International methodological standard for SNA. In 1993, the UN Statistical Commission approved the third version of the international methodological standard (SNA-93), which is currently used by Russia and most other countries of the world.
Structure of SNA-93. SNA-93 includes 21 chapters and 6 appendices. Chapters 1-5 present general methodological recommendations for the construction of the system of national accounts, its main concepts are given; chapters 6-12 deal with the methodology of constructing flow accounts; the methodology for constructing the balance of assets and liabilities is presented in chapter 13, and in chapter 14 the methodology of the accounts of the "rest of the world" (accounts of external transactions). The system of tables "Input-output" is the content of Chapter 15. Chapter 16 formulates recommendations for calculating SNA indicators in constant prices and in real terms, and Chapter 17 gives methodological recommendations for calculating indicators characterizing population and labor costs. Chapter 18 discusses functional classifications used in the SNA (classification according to the purposes of individual consumption, expenditures of producers, etc.), in Chapter 19 - questions of applying the system of national networks to solve various analytical tasks(modification of accounts and tables based on the use of additional classifications, alternative valuation methods, etc.). The main methodological principles of the matrix representation of the SNA for the analysis of social processes are formulated in Chapter 20, and finally, in Chapter 21, the issues of constructing and analyzing auxiliary accounts based on concepts and concepts that differ from those accepted in the main accounts and tables are outlined.
Basic concepts of SNS. In the system of national accounts, the economy is considered as a set of institutional units - residents, sectors, industries.
Institutional unit- it is an economic entity that can own assets on its own behalf, carry out economic activities and transactions with other entities, incur financial obligations and business decisions for which it is responsible in accordance with existing legislation.
Residents in the CIS they refer to institutional units that have a center of economic interests in the economic territory of the country.
Under economic territory refers to the geographical area under the jurisdiction of the government of a given country, within which persons, goods and money can move freely.
Internal (national) the economy covers the activities of residents both in the economic territory of a given country and outside it .
A set of institutional units that are similar in terms of their functions and sources of funding form institutional sector. The SNA uses the term company. An enterprise may consist of one or more establishments, those. units located in one place, engaged in one or predominantly one type of production activity. A set of establishments with the same or similar types of main production activity is called industry.
For analytical purposes, the system of national accounts provides for the division of the establishment into units of homogeneous production, which is understood as production units engaged in only one type of activity, homogeneous in terms of goods and services produced, directions of use, nature of the technological process. A set of units of homogeneous production with the same type of activity form clean industry.
The construction of the SNA is based on the concepts of economic theory that characterize the economic functions performed by economic entities; the main concept is production.
In the system of national accounts, production is defined as an activity carried out under the control of an economic entity, in which labor, capital, goods and services are used to create other goods and services. According to the SNA concept, almost all types of activities for the creation of goods and services are classified as economic production.
Products - These are the results of labor that have a material and material form. Services - these are the results of production activities that do not take a material form, satisfy personal and social needs, which are both material and non-material in nature.
Important components of the SNA are indicators of "flows" and "stocks". Flow indicators characterize the magnitude of economic processes over a period of time (for example, the production of goods and services, the payment of wages, etc.), i.e. flow measures are interval measures. Reserve indicators characterize the state of assets or liabilities at a certain moment - the beginning or end of the period under review (for example, the availability of fixed assets at the beginning of the year, etc.). Inventory indicators are momentary indicators.
The bulk of the flows are flows associated with economic transactions. economic operation is understood as the interaction between economic entities carried out by mutual agreement (for example, the purchase and sale of goods and services). Most of the operations involve the presence of counter flows between the participants, i.e. one party provides another party with a good, service, labor, or asset and receives compensation in return. Transfers – operations without compensation, i.e. without a counter flow of goods, services, etc.
Objects that are owned by economic entities and from the possession of which the entity derives economic benefits are defined in the system of national accounts as economic assets. The value of the assets is capital economic entity. The difference between the value of assets owned by an economic entity (i.e. capital) and the value of its financial liabilities is called net worth or own capital. Transactions must be reflected for both participants in the same cost estimate.
Principles and rules for constructing the SNA. The methodology for constructing the system of national accounts, along with the basic concepts and classifications, includes general principles and rules for accounting, valuation of indicators and the construction of tables.
The basis of the methodology for constructing the SNA is balance method, involving a comparison of indicators characterizing the studied phenomena and processes from two sides. The balance method is implemented using the double entry method adopted in accounting.
The system of national accounts uses two main types of tables that correspond to the principle of double entry: accounts - to reflect flows and balance tables - to reflect stocks.
The accounts are two-sided tables, which use special terminology to designate the parties.
AT current accounts(i.e. in accounts reflecting the processes of production and the movement of income), the right side is called "Resources", and the left side is called "Usage".
AT savings accounts the right side is labeled "Changes in liabilities and net worth" and the left side is labeled "Changes in assets".
The SNA uses two main methods of constructing accounts: the method of sequential construction of accounts and the method of commodity flows.
Sequential Accounting Method proposes the construction of accounts in accordance with the sequence of economic turnover processes and the linking of their indicators in general for the economy, sector, institutional unit.
Commodity flow method involves linking indicators of resources and their use for certain types of goods and services.
In the Russian government statistics the method of sequential construction of accounts is the main one. In each individual account, the balance between the right and left parts is achieved by calculation using a balancing item, which is recorded on the left side of the account and transferred to the right side of the next account. Thus, the accounts are linked into a single system.
Balancing items serve not only to ensure equality between the right and left parts of the accounts and link them into the system, but also to characterize the results of economic activity, i.e. have their own economic importance.
Balance sheets, like accounts, consist of two parts: the left side of the balance sheet is called “Assets”, and the right side is called “Liabilities and net worth”. The complex of interrelated accounts and tables of the SNA reflects the relationship between indicators of flows and stocks and allows you to form a complete picture of the functioning of the economy.
Most transactions involve two economic units, for each of which the transaction must be recorded twice, therefore, in the system of national accounts, the principle of recording transactions is called the “principle of four entries”. The balance method and the four-entry principle that implements it determine the main general methodological principles and rules for calculating all indicators of the system of national accounts. In accordance with the principle of four entries, each transaction must be recorded for both participants at the same time and in the same value. Transactions in the SNA are recorded at the time when claims and obligations arise, i.e. accrual method.
Information base of the SNA. The main principle of the formation of the information base of the system of national accounts is the complexity of the use of various sources of information: forms financial statements, state statistical observation. Data for calculating indicators of the system of national accounts, obtained from any source of information, which must be adjusted in accordance with its methodological principles and rules.
For example, the main difficulty in calculating the indicators of taxes and subsidies in the SNA lies in the fact that the necessary data in the report of the Ministry of Finance on the execution of the state budget are given without distinguishing payer sectors and on a cash basis. Therefore, it is necessary to involve additional information and carrying out additional calculations that allow adjusting state budget data for the amount of change in tax and subsidy arrears.
Improving the information base of the system of national accounts is associated with the adaptation of the system of statistics to it and with the development of state statistical observation (expanding sample surveys, conducting economic censuses, etc.). The main direction of improving the information support of the SNA is its linkage with the methodological principles of accounting. For this purpose, the UN Intergovernmental Group of Experts on International Accounting and Reporting Standards has been established to promote the implementation of accounting standards based on the principles of the SNA, contacts have been established between the UN Statistical Commission and International professional associations of accountants (with the International Federation of Accountants, etc.).
Groupings and classifications in the SNA. The main one is the grouping of economic units by sectors of the economy, which makes it possible to determine the role and characteristics of the economic behavior of various groups of economic units with similar functions and sources of financing, the relationship between them, the flow of goods and services, income and expenses.
The classification unit in a sectoral grouping is an institutional unit. In the system of national accounts, the following stages of institutional units of producers (enterprises) are distinguished:
corporations;
unincorporated enterprises;
· Quasi-corporations;
· state institutions;
non-profit organizations (market and non-market).
Corporation - a legal entity whose purpose is the production of goods and services for sale on the market at economically significant prices and profit, which is a source of income for owners who have limited liability for its obligations.
Unincorporated enterprise - an enterprise that, from an economic point of view, cannot be separated from its owner, who bears unlimited liability for the obligations of the enterprise. Under sectoral grouping, an unincorporated enterprise is treated as part of the institutional unit to which its owner belongs.
An unincorporated enterprise that has separate property, a certain autonomy in the disposal of property and income, in the existence of economic transactions with other units and maintains a complete set of accounting records (including a balance sheet of assets and liabilities), in the SNA is called quasi-corporation(for example, a state unitary enterprise). Under sectoral grouping, a quasi-corporation is treated as a corporation.
government agency- a legal entity financed from the state budget, the main function of which is to provide services to society or its individual members free of charge or at prices that do not have economic significance, as well as to redistribute income and property. This category includes state non-budgetary funds. The resources of these institutional units are formed from mandatory payments, income from property, and the sale of market services.
Non-profit organization(NPO) is a legal entity whose purpose is not to generate income for its owners or persons financing and controlling it. The system of national accounts separates market and non-market NPOs.
1. non-profit organizations that produce goods and services for sale on the market at economically significant prices;
2. non-profit organizations created by corporations and quasi-corporations to represent their interests (for example, chambers of commerce, bank associations, etc.)
To non-market NCOs include non-profit organizations that provide services free of charge or at prices that have no economic value. This category of NPOs includes institutional units that:
1. provide households with personalized services in health, education, culture, art, religion, etc.;
2. provide for the collective needs of households (for example, political parties, trade union organizations, various societies, sports organizations, clubs, etc.). These organizations are not funded by the state. The resources of these NPOs are made up of contributions, donations, gifts and property income.
Household - an individual or group of individuals who are residents of a given country, live together, have a common budget, collectively consume certain types of goods and services (mainly food and housing services). All households are consumers, and some are also engaged in productive activities in the form of unincorporated enterprises (for example, personal subsidiary plots, enterprises of individuals engaged in self-employment activities without forming a legal entity). Goods and services are produced by households both for their own consumption and for sale. The productive activity of the household cannot be separated from the household itself from an economic point of view. The resources of these institutional units are: salaries of employees, transfers (pensions, allowances, stipends), mixed income, income from property (interest on deposits, etc.). Households also include the so-called institutional population, i.e. a person who has been in hospitals, prisons, etc. for a long time.
Institutional resident units are grouped into sectors according to the functions they perform and sources of funding for their activities.
The SNA identifies five institutional sectors of the national economy:
1. nonfinancial corporations.
2. financial corporations.
3. Public administration.
4. Non-profit organizations serving households.
5. Households.
Non-financial corporations include non-financial corporations and quasi-corporations (including business entities created by NPOs), market NPOs (including those created by non-financial corporations and quasi-corporations and representing their interests).
financial corporations. The sector includes financial corporations and quasi-corporations, as well as market NPOs (including those created and representing the interests of financial corporations and quasi-corporations).
Public administration includes institutional units classified as public institutions, as well as non-market NPOs controlled and primarily financed by public institutions.
Non-profit organizations serving households. The sector includes non-state non-market non-profit organizations providing services to households.
households include all resident institutional units of that type. Unincorporated enterprises owned by household members are treated as part of the relevant institutional unit, the household.
The rest of the world. In the SNA, this sector is singled out to describe the economic relations that link the national economy of a given country with other countries. The sector consists of residents of other countries that transact with institutional units that are residents of that country.
The second type of classification of economic units in the system of national accounts is their grouping by industry, which is used to study production processes. The 1993 SNA recommends grouping by industry in accordance with the International Standard Industry Classification. In the grouping of economic units by industry, the classification unit is institution.
The most important type of grouping used in the SNA is the classification economic transactions(Fig. 16.1).
Rice. 16.1. Classification of economic transactions in the SNA.
Transactions in goods and services refer to the process of production, exchange and use of goods and services. They include transactions in goods and services produced in a given period and goods previously produced.
Income transactions are carried out to distribute the added value of economic units, as well as to redistribute income.
Transactions in financial instruments are transactions involving the acquisition of financial liabilities by economic units.
Taxes in the SNA are divided into two groups:
current (paid regularly);
capital (one-time).
Classification current taxes reflected in fig. 16.2.
The classification of economic assets is shown in fig. 16.3.
For the analysis of economic activity, generalizing statistical indicators characterizing flows and stocks are presented in the SNA in the form of a specific set of accounts and tables.
A necessary condition for building a system of national accounts is a clear distinction between such concepts as consumption and gross capital formation, final consumption and intermediate consumption. However, in practice, in many cases, system developers have difficulty in classifying certain types of activities or operations in one category or another. For example, there are difficulties in reflecting expenses for current and overhaul(consumption or gross capital formation), training, research and development (intermediate consumption or gross capital formation), and education (consumption or gross capital formation).
Rice 16.2. Classification of current expenses.
ECONOMIC ASSETS |
||||
Non-financial assets |
Financial assets |
|||
Produced assets |
monetary gold |
|||
material |
Cash and deposits |
|||
Intangible |
Securities other than shares |
|||
Non-produced assets |
||||
material |
Shares and other types of equity participation |
|||
Intangible |
Other accounts receivable and creditor |
|||
Fig.16.3. Classification of economic assets
The category to which expenditures are assigned determines the value of gross value added and, consequently, the value of gross domestic product (when distinguishing between intermediate consumption and gross capital formation) or the proportion of its final use (when distinguishing between final consumption and gross capital formation).
The system of national accounts distinguishes between flows of goods and services and income flows, distinguishes between income received from the production of goods and services (primary income) and income received as a result of redistributive processes (secondary income), distinguishes between current and capital costs - all this reflected in various accounts and tables.
main accounts. The 1993 SNA assumes the compilation of the following main accounts: goods and services account, production account, accounts for the generation, distribution, redistribution and use of income, capital account, financial account, account for other changes in assets. They can be grouped as follows:
· accounts for the five sectors of the domestic economy, accounts for sectors of the economy, accounts for individual institutional units and establishments;
· summary (consolidated) accounts for the economy as a whole;
Accounts for certain types of economic transactions;
· accounts of the “rest of the world” (accounts of external operations).
In table. 16.1, 16.2 the main consolidated accounts of the domestic economy and the accounts of the “rest of the world” (accounts of external transactions) are presented.
The object of national accounting is the country's economy. Subject national accounting is a statistical description of the state and development of the country's economy using a system of macroeconomic indicators and national accounts formed from them, intersectoral balance tables and other tables.
The word "accounting" in this context reflects the connection of the system of macroeconomic indicators with accounting. This explains the use of the basic principles of accounting in national accounting: the value of all indicators, the balance method, the double entry method, the assumption of an unlimited duration of the functioning of the economy.
National accounting focuses on the market economy, its mechanisms and institutions. The theoretical basis of national accounting is the recognition of the equality of all forms of ownership, the market nature of price formation on the basis of competition, and the natural desire of all people to profit. National accounting is based on a market economy, actively regulated by the state. The state in the system of national accounts is represented by an independent sector that provides non-market (free) services to the population and distributes and redistributes income according to the principles of both economic and social justice.
The System of National Accounts (SNA), focusing on the welfare state, makes the social policy of the state “open”, showing cash flows of income redistribution, i.e., national accounting is oriented towards an open economy included in broad international economic relations. Such an economy is characterized by freedom of movement across the country's borders not only for goods and services, but also for factors of production: labor, capital, entrepreneurship, investment, new technologies, etc.
National accounting is a practically working system created on the basis of and in accordance with the international standard of the SNA, adapted to the national conditions of transition to a market economy.
System of National Accounts(SNA) is an accounting corresponding to the national market economy, which at the macro level is represented by a system of interrelated statistical indicators, built in the form of a certain set of accounts and balance sheets that characterize the results of economic activity, the structure of the economy and the most important interconnections of its links.
The national accounting system uses two types of classification units: Kind of activity and institutional Unit, grouped by industry and institutional sectors. Main institutional sectors:
- households whose sources of financing of costs are wages, property income, income from production activities, transfers from the state, etc.;
- non-profit organizations serving households. These include trade unions, religious organizations, parties and social and political movements, public organizations funded by membership dues and voluntary donations. They provide services that meet the special needs of households;
- state institutions, including bodies of state power and local self-government, state non-budgetary funds. Enterprises are financed from the budget, manufactured products or services are transferred to consumers free of charge or at economically insignificant prices;
- financial institutions include the Central Bank, commercial banks, non-state insurance funds, investment companies, etc. Produce financial services, mainly financial intermediation, the source of financing of which is the proceeds from the services rendered, sold on the market in competition;
- non-financial enterprises - institutional units that produce products and non-financial services sold on the market at economically significant prices and cover their costs from the profits received.
The term "rest of the world" is used to describe international relations. Types of economic activity are determined by the OKVED classifier by entering an enterprise, institution in the USREO.
National Accounting studies the economy as a system of assets and liabilities. An economic asset is characterized by the following features:
- the subject of the economy has the right of ownership to the asset;
- the realization of this property right allows the subject of the economy to receive or hope to receive income or other economic benefits;
- an asset has a valuation, that is, a monetary dimension.
Assets are divided into financial and non-financial. Financial assets do not have a material substratum that determines its value. A financial asset of one entity is opposed to a financial liability of another entity. Financial assets include cash and deposits, loans, securities (bill, bond), shares, insurance policies.
Non-financial assets1 are divided into two groups: tangible and intangible; produced and unproduced.
All of the above concepts of national accounting are described by indicators and the national accounts formed by them. Indicators and national accounts form a system where they are interconnected and complement each other, and generally accurately and comprehensively describe the country's economy.
The main accounts of the system of national accounts are:
The sequence of formation of national accounts indicators corresponds to the sequence of stages of the reproduction cycle.
Statistics of socio-economic indicators at the macro level
There are many social and economic indicators that characterize the life of the country at the macro level. These include gross domestic product, total or per capita, gross national income, economic growth rates, national wealth, public debt, the US dollar against the ruble (which is set by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation), the number of registered unemployed, etc.
Of all the above socio-economic indicators, the most important is the indicator of the state's gross domestic product, which can be calculated in several ways (depending on the stage of production):
- production method (at the stage of value-added production) - determines the value of GDP as the difference between the total volume of output and intermediate consumption, or it is the sum of the gross value added of all industries and sectors of the economy. This is how the GDP produced is calculated;
- distribution method (produced at the stage of distribution of manufactured products) - as the sum of incomes of production factors, which is obtained as a result of summing up incomes from labor (wages and accruals on it, fees, natural incomes, commissions, etc.), income from property (profit, rent, dividends, etc.), mixed incomes (income of freelancers, income from farming, self-employment, etc.). This method calculates the distributed GDP;
- final use method (in terms of costs) - as a result of summing the costs of all economic agents using it (firms, households, foreign citizens, states), i.e. GDP \u003d P + I + W + E,
where P - personal consumer spending of households on durable goods; I - gross investments (enterprise investments in the purchase of new equipment and construction, excluding housing); Z - government purchases of goods and services (expenditures for education, health care, the army, etc.); E - net exports (the difference between exports and imports of the state).
GDP can be calculated at both factor and market prices.
Factor prices are determined by the cost of the costs of all factors of production for the creation of goods and services, i.e., this is the price of the producer, which consists of the cost of production and profit.
Market prices are the sum of factor prices and indirect taxes (value added tax (VAT), excises, customs duties, etc.) minus subsidies, which include gratuitous receipts from the state and from other sources for products, imports, compensation for losses etc.
In Russia, GDP and gross national product (GNP) are currently calculated by the production method, i.e. GDP is the sum of the gross value added of industries and sectors of the economy, net taxes on products (excluding subsidies).
The next most important is national income indicator country, which is obtained by subtracting depreciation from the gross national product. Wherein net national income(NNI) is calculated as the sum of national income and net transfers from abroad (humanitarian aid, gifts, donations, etc.) minus net transfers abroad.
Gross national product(GNP) shows the value of the final product produced by factors of production owned by citizens of a given state, even if they live in other countries.
GNP = GDP + NFD,
where NFD is the net factor income from abroad, i.e. the difference between the income received by citizens of a given country abroad and the income of foreigners received in the territory of this country.
In order to analyze the socio-economic situation in the country, it is necessary to group the following indicators:
distribution of national income and gross domestic product of the state by branches and sectors of the economy;
territorial grouping of gross output, gross domestic product and national income according to the administrative-territorial division of the state;
division of the gross domestic product and gross output according to the form of existence - into material goods and services.
You can also group according to other criteria if necessary. The dynamics of indicators of the results of economic activity is studied by calculating the corresponding indices of physical volume according to the formula
where q0P0- the actual value of gross output, gross domestic product, national income in the base period; 1P0 - the cost of the same indicators of the reporting period in the prices of the base period.
In a market economy there is a constant rise in prices for goods and services. The main problem that arises in the calculation of indices is the revaluation of the cost indicators of the reporting period in the prices of the base period. Since inflation is an uneven process, it is practically impossible to recalculate the prices of each type of goods and services into comparable prices with the base period.
In the theory of statistics, there are three main methods for converting indicators of gross domestic product and national income into comparable prices with a base period:
using a direct assessment of the volume of production of goods and services at the prices of the base period;
through the revaluation of any components of the gross domestic product and national income using the relevant indices;
based on index consumer prices.
The first method is very difficult to calculate. It was most often used in the planned system of management. Its essence lies in the fact that the physical volume of output (in physical terms) is multiplied by the corresponding prices of the base period. The method allows you to take into account in detail the dynamics of changes in prices for goods and services, but its disadvantage is that it becomes necessary to regularly change the base prices, and there is also a problem of comparability of goods and services of the same name due to changes in their quality (for different years of production), which forces to look for a set of representative products that will determine the composite price index, and this is also very inconvenient and problematic.
The second method is not as accurate and complex as the first, and consists in the fact that the elements of gross domestic product and national income are converted into comparable prices by dividing by the appropriate index, i.e. when revaluing construction products, the capital investment index is used, when revaluing machinery and equipment - the price index for machinery and equipment, etc. This method of recalculation requires a fairly wide base for calculating the corresponding price indices.
The third of the listed methods, built on the basis of the consumer price index, is the simplest, not entirely accurate, but convenient for calculating comparable prices and is used in most developed countries. However, this method does not take into account the dynamics of changes in prices for public services and investments, for export-import operations, for capital goods in other sectors of the economy.
national wealth statistics
An important section in economic statistics is the section devoted to the statistics of national wealth.
national wealth- this is a set of accumulated tangible and intangible assets created by the labor of all previous generations, belonging to the country or its residents and located in the economic territory of this country and beyond its borders (national property), as well as explored and involved in the economic circulation of natural and other resources.
Statistics in national wealth helps to collect and analyze data of all its components in general and in each category separately, on the basis of which it is possible to determine the main flows of national wealth, the investment activity of individual sectors of the economy, the degree of liquidity of their financial assets, and much more. The obtained statistical data on national wealth give an economic assessment of the country as a whole, its property status, as well as how the country's economic potential meets international standards. When considering and analyzing statistical data, it is possible to determine the potential, acceptable opportunities for the further development of the country.
Components of national wealth:
Natural resources(land, minerals, energy resources, forest and animal world), which are accounted for and involved in the turnover. As a characteristic feature of natural resources, it can be distinguished that they are non-reproducible benefits. When obtaining statistical data on natural resources, you can:
- develop a system of indicators on the efficient use of natural resources;
- analyze the work of environmental protection measures, evaluate the effectiveness of their work;
- determine the amount of financial resources that will be needed for environmental purposes;
- analyze the extent to which the human factor has an impact on the natural environment, as well as how environment affects the quality of life of the population:
- material resources acquired as a result of accumulated labor. Material resources can be produced at any time, hence they are reproducible goods;
national property- is formed during the production process, it includes:
- fixed assets (buildings, structures, vehicles, machinery, equipment, etc.). Statistical data of fixed assets characterize their general condition, prospects for the development of fixed assets throughout the country and separately in each industry;
- working capital (production stocks - raw materials, materials, fuel, spare parts; work in progress; finished products, material reserves, etc.);
- personal property. National wealth statistics are used to assess the level of economic development;
- accumulated scientific and technical potential;
- intellectual potential.
- material resources acquired as a result of accumulated labor. Material resources can be produced at any time, hence they are reproducible goods;
So, national wealth includes the value of all production and non-production assets of the state, stocks, reserves, individual and public property. In some cases, national wealth includes the scientific and technical level and experience of workers. National wealth consists of the accumulated products of past labor, including consumer goods, and natural resources accounted for and involved in economic turnover. As part of national wealth, stocks and reserves are taken into account separately according to the place of their determination and the duration of storage. The gold reserves of the country and reserves for the needs of the state's defense are also taken into account separately.
National wealth calculations are carried out in current and comparable prices that exist at the moment. Statistical indicators on national wealth show the level of development of the country on an international scale.
Building balances for regions as a whole
The construction of balance sheets and the typology of Russian regions, the analysis of their differentiation in terms of various indicators of socio-economic development have become one of the key areas of research in the rapidly developing Russian regional economy. The same term - "region" - describes socio-economic systems that are completely incomparable in terms of scale of activity, direction of development, political orientation, therefore, the construction of a typology serves as a starting point, a condition for analyzing regional economic systems and building balances for regions as a whole.
When studying the differentiation of Russian regions, it is necessary, first of all, to select the factors that determine the specifics of the socio-economic situation of the region. It should be emphasized that local governments at the regional level began to work on the development of plans and programs for economic development at the regional level only in the post-Soviet period. In fact, they had no traditions, skills or experience in this area. Under the conditions of the Soviet centralized economic and political system, local governments were part of the structure of the centralized political and economic system. In the system of centralized planning of the economy, local governments were completely dependent on central ministries, enterprises subordinate to the center, and party structures. The responsibility of the local government included the provision of socio-economic infrastructure in accordance with centrally established standards, the task of building a regional balance was secondary.
The very formulation of the problem of analyzing the economic situation of the regions became relevant only in the conditions of post-Soviet development, when local governments got the opportunity to actively influence the processes of economic development at the regional level. In general, the development of regional balances serves as a condition for effective adaptation to local conditions of the social policy developed at the federal level (pension policy, employment program, housing program, federal standards in the field of healthcare, education, social protection of the population). The selection of indicators for building a balance of the socio-economic situation in the regions, focused on the choice of methods for implementing social policy, is a rather difficult task.
The use of an indicator such as gross regional product, involves the improvement of the methodology of its calculations and the development of a system for accounting for the economic activity of the regions in the system of indicators of national accounts. When using this indicator at the regional level, it is necessary to study the theoretical and methodological aspects of the relationship (GRP), output per capita, and the level of well-being.
For most federal governments, having a system of regional economic accounts compatible with the System of National Accounts (SNA) is vital. Typically, economic accounts of regions are included in the SNA as component. To date, the SNA is the only reasonable, generally recognized tool for macroeconomic analysis of the real economy, including the regional one.
The central indicator of regional accounts is the gross domestic product produced in the region. In Russia, this indicator (gross regional product - GRP) is calculated only at the level of subjects of the Russian Federation. Methodological basis for calculations is under development. Official recommendations on the development of a system of regional economic accounts, as well as on the composition of such accounts, have not been published.
It is obvious that the study of regional differences in the economic development of Russia cannot be carried out on the basis of only one resulting indicator - GRP. Actual differences can be estimated as a result of the construction of regional balances and the analysis of the economic process by region, which can be described by the system of economic accounts of the region. When developing the economic accounts of the regions, a system of key indicators is selected that reflect the general macroeconomic situation in the region, the state of the real sector, the budgetary and financial system. We can propose the following system of indicators for building a regional balance.
Macro indicators and the real sector: GRP / per capita (thousand rubles); volume of industrial output / per capita (thousand rubles); agricultural production / per capita (thousand rubles); share of the urban population in the total population (in %); investment in fixed capital / per capita (thousand rubles); foreign investment / per capita (USD); export volume / per capita (thousand rubles); retail trade turnover / per capita (thousand rubles); consumer price index (in %; December / December of the corresponding year); cash income / per capita (thousand rubles); purchasing power of money income (in %); the level of general unemployment (in %); poverty rate (in %).
Financial and budgetary systems: budget deficit, referred to GRP (in %); share of tax revenues in budget revenues (in %); the share of profit on the main types of economic activity, referred to the GRP (in %); share of unprofitable enterprises (in %); share of overdue accounts payable, referred to GRP (in %); the number of operating credit institutions per 10,000 enterprises; share of credit investments related to GRP (in %); the share of overdue debt on loans in the total volume of loans (in percent); share of current and settlement accounts of enterprises, referred to GRP (in %); household deposits referred to GRP (in %); purchase of currency / per capita (thousand rubles); currency sales / per capita (thousand rubles).
The proposed system of indicators is an agreed scheme for collecting, describing and linking the main flows of statistical information, which are expressed in macroeconomic indicators that characterize the most important results and proportions of the economic
development of regions. With their help, the regional balance can be represented in the form of a series of tables that show the resources and use of material incomes and benefits of the regions. Auxiliary tables allow you to refine individual aggregated indicators according to a particular criterion. They are used for the purposes of inter-budget equalization, development of standards for budget financing, which are part of the key parameters of the draft federal budget.
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