A. Leonov, A. Sokolov. Man and the Universe. Prospects for international cooperation in space exploration
The exclusive role of international cooperation in the field space research and their practical application requires a clear clarification of the legal content of the principle of interstate cooperation from the point of view of the ITUC. The general principle of cooperation established by international law is fully applicable to interstate relations related to the exploration and use of outer space. The states declared their desire to maximally promote the comprehensive development of international cooperation in outer space in the preamble of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, as well as in many articles of this treaty, and this gives grounds to include the cooperation of states in the exploration and use of outer space among the basic principles of the ISL.
Thus, the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 consolidated the principle of cooperation between states as one of the general principles, the basic principles of the SP. A number of provisions of the outer space treaty follow from the principle of cooperation and detail it. For example, the obligation to take into account the relevant interests of all other states when carrying out activities in outer space, not to create potentially harmful interference with the activities of other states, to provide possible help cosmonauts of other states, inform all countries about the nature, course, place and results of their activities in outer space, etc.
Thus, the main content of the principle of cooperation is the obligation of states to cooperate with each other in the exploration of outer space and the obligation to maximally favor and promote the development of broad contacts and joint work on the study and use of outer space.
within the UN. The leading role in the development of cooperation between states in the exploration and use of outer space belongs to the UN General Assembly. It has achieved the most significant success in the field of legal regulation of space activities, and it is rightfully considered the center of international cooperation in the development of ISL standards. It adopted: 1) Declaration of Legal Principles of Space Activities, 2) Outer Space Treaty, 3) Rescue Agreement, 4) Liability Convention, 5) Registration Convention, 6) Moon Agreement. Its decisive role in the formation and development of the ITUC was already evident in the creation of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, better known as the Outer Space Committee.
The main functions of the General Assembly include: 1) formulating tasks for the study and development of legal problems of outer space exploration, 2) approval of the recommendations of the UN Committee on Outer Space on issues of legal regulation of space activities of states, and 3) approval of draft agreements on outer space within the framework of the UN Committee on outer space, 4) direct development of drafts of individual articles of these agreements at sessions of the General Assembly with the participation of the absolute majority of states.
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. In accordance with UN resolutions, the committee is charged with dealing with both scientific, technical and legal issues of outer space exploration; it performs the role of the central coordinating body in the field of international cooperation in space exploration. The UN Committee on Outer Space consists of two subcommittees - Legal and Scientific and Technical. The main law-making activity of the Committee is carried out through its Legal Subcommittee. The Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on Outer Space carries out activities to develop draft multilateral agreements regulating activities in the exploration and use of outer space. In fact, this subcommittee is the central working body for the development of the principles and norms of the ITUC. The Committee takes decisions by consensus.
The UN Secretary-General is endowed with a fairly wide range of powers in the field of coordinating cooperation in space exploration: 1) he is entrusted with the collection and dissemination of information on the space activities of states, 2) maintaining a register containing information on launched space objects and providing open access to it, 3) collection and dissemination of data on phenomena that pose a threat to the life and health of astronauts and the actions of states to rescue and provide assistance to astronauts in the event of an accident, disaster, forced or unintentional landing, 4) ad hoc appointment of the chairman of the commission to consider claims under the Liability Convention, etc. .
In addition, many UN specialized agencies play an important role in space exploration: 1) ITU (International Telecommunication Union), which develops regulations that allocate radio frequency bands for space communications, studies the economic aspects of space communications, and exchanges information on the use of satellites for long-distance communications , 2) UNESCO, whose main task in the field of space is to study the problems of using space communications for the purpose of disseminating information, social development, expanding cultural exchange, 3) WHO, which promotes cooperation between states in the field of space medicine; 4) other organizations.
Two UN conferences on the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes in 1968 and 1982 were also of great importance for the development of international cooperation in space exploration.
WITHIN INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS. No universal intergovernmental international organization dealing with space problems has been created. Currently, a number of international organizations are dealing with practical issues of international cooperation in this area within their competence.
International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). Its main goal was to radically improve maritime communications using artificial earth satellites. The constituent documents of INMARSAT consist of the intergovernmental Convention on the International Organization of Maritime Satellite Communications, which defines the fundamental provisions for the creation of the organization and the Operating Agreement, which regulates technical and financial issues, and which is signed either on behalf of the government or on behalf of public or private competent organizations designated by it. The bearers of the rights and obligations under the Convention are only States. The operating agreement provides that its subjects may be either states or competent national organizations designated by the governments of states.
International Organization for Communications via Artificial Earth Satellites (INTELSAT). The main goal of INTELSAT is to commercialize the design, construction, operation and Maintenance a global communications system by means of artificial satellites "used for international purposes and accessible to all States without any discrimination". Now INTELSAT members are more than 100 states. However, in the specialized literature, a number of shortcomings are pointed out, the main of which are that more than half of all votes belong to the American private campaign COMSAT, which represents the interests of the United States in INTELSAT, and that, rather, INTELSAT is a kind of a / o with the participation of foreign capital.
European Space Agency (ESA). Back in the early 1960s, Western European countries decided to pursue a space policy independent of the United States. Several international organizations have been formed. At the end of 1968, a decision was made to merge in the future all space organizations existing in Western Europe and to create a single organization - ESA. Only in 1975, representatives of 11 countries signed the Convention establishing the ESA. 3 more states have observer status. The activities of the ESA should be aimed at ensuring and developing cooperation between European states in space exploration and at the practical application of the achievements of astronautics for peaceful purposes. The main tasks of the ESA are: 1) development and coordination of a long-term common European space policy of all member states and each state separately, 2) development and implementation of a common European space program, 3) development and implementation of an appropriate industrial policy. The agency's space programs are divided into mandatory, financed by all member states, and optional, in the financing of which only interested parties participate.
ARABSAT can be singled out from other intergovernmental organizations. It includes 21 states from among the members of the League of Arab States. The main goal of ARABSAT is to create and maintain a long-distance communication system for all members of the League.
WITHIN INTERNATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS. These international non-governmental organizations do not represent a form of cooperation between states, since their founders and members are not states, but scientific societies, institutions and individual scientists. Their activity contributes to a wide exchange of information, discussion of various scientific problems and strengthening of international cooperation.
The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) was established in October 1958 to continue the implementation of activities for cooperation in space exploration after the end of the International Geophysical Year. The main task of this international organization is "to enable scientists all over the world to widely use satellites and space probes for scientific research in outer space and to organize the exchange of information on the results of research on the basis of reciprocity." Its goal is to promote progress in the study of outer space on an international scale.
The International Astronautical Federation (IAF) was formed organizationally in 1952. The activity of the IAF is based on the Charter adopted in 1961 with amendments in 1968 and 1974. The activities of the IAF are aimed at promoting the development of astronautics for peaceful purposes, promoting the dissemination of information about space research, as well as on a number of social and legal issues of space exploration. There are 3 categories of members in the IAF: 1) national members (astronautical societies of various countries), 2) universities, laboratories whose activities are related to the training of personnel or research in the field of astronautics, 3) international organizations whose goals correspond to the tasks of the IAF.
International Institute of Space Law (IISL). It was created to replace the previously existing IAF Standing Legal Committee. Its task is to: 1) study the legal and sociological aspects of space activities, 2) organize annual colloquia on space law, which are held simultaneously with the IAF congresses, 3) conduct research and prepare reports on the legal issues of space exploration, 4) publish various materials on space law. The Institute is also involved in the teaching of space law. It is the only non-governmental organization that discusses the legal problems of space exploration. IISL is created on the basis of individual membership. It represents the IAF on the Legal Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on Outer Space. International Law Course. M, 1989. S.194.
The high scientific, technical and production potential that Russia has managed to maintain in the field of space construction and secondary space services, despite the difficult economic conditions of the past ten years, can play a decisive role in the competition with the United States and Europe, pursuing an independent space policy, uniting the space industry of countries, included in the EU.
The Russian Government attaches paramount importance to the expansion of international cooperation with its participation in the field of outer space. First of all, we are talking about the provision on a commercial basis of services for launching foreign payloads into outer space using Russian launch vehicles, generally recognized for their quality and reliability.
Proton launch complexes successfully compete for launches into geostationary orbit, which is currently the most in demand in terms of commerce, television and radio broadcasting and communications. Today, in low orbits, where Soyuz launch vehicles are used, a market is being formed in which Russia has a significant share.
Russia's potential in the space launch business could be greatly enhanced by the commercial use of its stock of military conversion rockets capable of launching small and medium payloads into low, polar and elliptical orbits.
Russia has a developed ground infrastructure for conducting space launches. The active constant modernization of the Baikonur Cosmodrome makes it one of the most modern cosmodrome in terms of work with clients. The Svobodny and Plesetsk military cosmodromes, as well as the Kapustin Yar space test site, are open for launching foreign payloads.
Russia carries out, in compliance with its international obligations, the export of missile technologies.
The portfolio of orders for the supply of domestic space technology and services to the world market annually exceeds $2 billion.
In the process of commercialization of space activities, national and transnational private and private-state companies become its active participants on an increasingly decisive scale. The global space market, given its diversity, scale and scientific and technical specifics, cannot but be an arena of competition. Its laws lead to the formation of space commercial alliances specialized in specific types of activity in certain areas of this market. Most often, they take the form of joint ventures, which makes it possible to carry out space projects in the optimal mode, making them as cheap as possible and attracting the best technologies, specialists, marketing experience, geographical and other opportunities.
Russia is an active participant in space commercial integration processes. To promote the launch services of the Russian Soyuz launch vehicles on the world market, the Starsem joint venture was created. From France, it includes two firms: Aerospatial (the leading manufacturer of rockets in Europe) and Arianespas.
In the geostationary orbit market, the efforts of the American company Lockheed-Martin and the Russian State Space Research and Production Center. Khrunichev for the joint promotion of the Proton launch vehicle. Launches from Plesetsk Russian missile"Rokot" is being promoted by the joint Russian-German venture "Eurokot".
The broadest commercial prospects are opening up in the process of practical implementation of possible Russian-Australian projects related to the construction of a cosmodrome on Christmas Island and potentially using the Australian test site in Woomera to launch commercial payloads by Russian launch vehicles.
International cooperation in conducting space research is currently being implemented in many areas. There are international organizations specially created for this purpose, bilateral and multilateral agreements are concluded and implemented both on organizational and legal issues and on the implementation of various space projects, international scientific congresses, conferences and symposiums are held. A number of countries conduct mutual exchange of scientific and technical information and results of space activities.
Russia's interstate activity in the exploration and study of outer space is based on the scientific, technical and intellectual potential created over the past 40 years and proceeds from the economic situation within the country, as well as Russia's geopolitical interests.
The partners of Rosaviakosmos within the framework of inter-agency agreements are:
NASA - US National Space Agency for Aeronautics;
ESA - European Space Agency;
CNES - National Center for Space Research of France;
DAPA - National Agency for Space Research of Germany;
CCWYC - China State Corporation "Great Wall";
SAC - Japanese Space Program Commission;
ASY - Italian Space Agency.
Currently, Russia is actively cooperating on several international programs. Let's consider them in more detail.
Manned orbital International Space Station (ISS) is designed for space missions different duration, experiments on board the station in order to demonstrate medical, technical and organizational support for the continuous work of astronauts in orbit, maintaining the survivability of a multi-section habitable structure. As a result, a space center in orbit will be created in a few years - the most impressive station in space in the entire history of the development of astronautics - weighing up to 400 tons (of which only the Russian part is 110 tons), launched into an initial orbit of 350 km with the prospect of transferring to a working orbit of 410 - 450 km in order to ensure a longer duration of operation. Russia's contribution to the development, manufacture and launch of station elements will amount to more than 40% of the total number of units. Russia's partners in this
project are the United States, Japan, Canada, member states of the European Space Agency .
The "Spectrum" program provides for astrophysical research in various ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. The objects of research are Mars, Jupiter, the Sun, a number of other planets and celestial bodies of the solar system. Russia's partners in this project are more than 20 countries, including the USA, France, Germany, Denmark, Israel, Turkey, India, and Japan.
The AUOS-SM program provides for observing the Sun from the satellite orbit. Russia's partners in this project are 10 countries: USA, France, Germany, Slovakia, Poland, India, Japan, Bulgaria, Spain and Ukraine.
The program "Forecast-M2" provides for the study of solar activity, processes in the earth's atmosphere, solar-terrestrial relations. Russia's partners in this project are 16 countries: Austria, Italy, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Greece, Germany, Canada, Poland, Romania, Finland, France, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Sweden, Cuba and Ukraine.
The "Granat" program provides for astrophysical research in various ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. Russia's partners in this project are 4 countries: France, Denmark, Bulgaria and Ukraine.
The "Bion" program provides for medical and biological research. Russia's partner is the USA ( NASA , Aimes Research Center).
The Photon program provides for the production of materials in space conditions and research in the field of microgravity. Russia's partners in this project are France, Germany, and the European Space Agency.
The program "Meteor" is intended for hydrometeorological support of consumers. Partner - USA ( NASA, Langley Center).
The launching of foreign payloads (space objects) by Russian launch vehicles is an important direction in the provision of space transport services and strengthening Russia's position in the world market of launch vehicles. According to experts, foreign exchange earnings from the use of the Proton launch vehicle alone could exceed 650 million dollars in the next 7-10 years, and the entire amount of possible orders for the supply of domestic space technology to the world market is estimated at more than 2 billion. dollars (total volume of the world market - 400 billion dollars).
In addition to the above, we should also mention the programs for the development of the Cospas-Sarsat space search and rescue system (over the 20-year period of successful operation, the system ensured the rescue of more than 15 thousand inhabitants of the Earth and won international prestige and recognition), for the implementation of the Sea Launch project and a number of others.
The joint work of many countries continues within the framework of such programs as Interkosmos (the foundations of this program were laid at a meeting in Moscow in November 1965) and Intersputnik (the agreement was signed in November 1971).
The areas of application of space facilities in the interests of international cooperation are constantly expanding. All these works are of interest to both scientifically and technologically advanced states and developing countries, since this contributes to their development, strengthening mutual understanding and trust in each other, expanding contacts and cooperation.
The leading position in space activities is occupied by such countries as Russia, the USA, France and China. Germany, England, Japan, Canada, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain and a number of others allocate significant funds for space programs comparable to Russia's appropriations. In total, more than 120 countries are involved in varying degrees in research on the exploration and use of outer space. Among them, a number of new space powers - India, Pakistan, Israel, Brazil, Argentina, Iran - are increasing their already significant financial investments in the development of space technology, the development of highly efficient rocket and space technologies.
In this regard, the delay and loss of pace in the development of domestic cosmonautics may result in the loss of Russia's position in the global space market. Russia's practice of fulfilling international obligations in the field of outer space is an indicator of its ability to carry out full-scale space activities, to make an effective contribution to international high-tech and science-intensive projects and programs.
In addition, international cooperation in the context of reduced budgetary financing of space activities is an important factor in the development of Russia's space potential in the structure of space activities of the world community.
In his report at the International Space Conference - 2001 "Space without weapons - an arena of peaceful cooperation in XXI century", dedicated to the 40th anniversary of the flight of the first man into space, Director General of Rosaviakosmos Yu.N. Koptev noted that "the Russian Federation is open to broad, effective cooperation in the field of space activities."
Concluding the section, we note that astronautics XXI century is a progressive, constantly expanding sphere of purposeful activity in the interests of mankind, one of the powerful means of solving global problems, primarily, ensuring comprehensive international security.
Following the leading space powers - Russia and the United States - many countries, both developed and those that until recently were conventionally classified as developing countries, have come to understand the importance of space activities for their successful development and the realization of national interests. This explains the increased interest of a number of foreign countries in the latest achievements of domestic engineering and scientific and technological thought. Russia's international cooperation in the field of exploration and exploration of outer space continues to develop.
The increase and efficient use of space potential, taking into account state support measures, also determines the solution of many socio-economic problems, contributes to the creation of new jobs, and improves the quality of life of the population. And this, without a doubt, is one of the vectors for realizing Russia's national interests and strengthening its positions on the world stage.
NASA chief Jim Bridenstine said US-Russian space cooperation is at a high point despite the Soyuz accident on October 11. According to Bridenstine, although the flight to the ISS failed, the safe return of astronauts to Earth should be considered a great success.
Political scientist: space is the area in which Russia and the United States have no conflictNASA chief Jim Bridenstine called relations with Russia in space excellent. On the air of Sputnik radio, political scientist Nikolai Mironov expressed the opinion that the space sector could become a starting point for expanding cooperation between the Russian Federation and the United States.“This mission is not only scientific and research, but also diplomatic. We see that our countries in many cases do not follow the same course, our interests diverge in many ways, but in space exploration we have always been able to leave these differences behind and work closely together. It was clearly visible," Bridenstine said.
He told how Russian specialists hugged the Americans at the Mission Control Center when it became clear that the astronauts had landed successfully and were safe. "It was worth looking at," said the head of NASA.
Nathan Eismont, a leading researcher at the Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, expressed the opinion on Sputnik radio that politics does not affect cooperation between Russia and the United States in the space sector.
"Our cooperation continues, and so far no political troubles have essentially affected cooperation in the field of space activities. Moreover, during periods of noticeable political exacerbations, we started new projects. And this trend - the independence of our cooperation from any troubles in politics - continues "An example is the Venera-D project. This Russian-American project involves sending a robot to Venus, and not even one, but several. Given the advances in technology, both Russia and the United States expect to receive new, very important research results "Venus. It is supposed to be launched in 2026, all the technical possibilities are there, everything is great here. Cooperation continues, there are no signs that it will be curtailed. On the contrary, it is only expanding," said Nathan Eismont.
On Thursday, October 11, there was the first accident in the history of modern Russia in manned cosmonautics. The Soyuz-FG carrier rocket failed to launch the Soyuz MS-10 spacecraft with the new ISS crew into orbit.
FCR vice president: what happened to Soyuz is a unique situationSources called the preliminary cause of the accident at the launch of the Soyuz: one of the blocks of the first stage did not separate at the specified time. Vice-President of the Federation of Cosmonautics of Russia (FKR) Oleg Mukhin commented on the situation on Sputnik radio.On board were Russian Alexei Ovchinin and American Nick Haig. They managed to evacuate to Earth in a rescue capsule, they were not injured.
Roskosmos has created an emergency commission. A criminal case has been initiated on violation of safety rules for construction work. According to preliminary data, the accident occurred due to the fact that one of the four blocks of the first stage of the launch vehicle did not separate at the specified time, and when this happened, it hit the central block. The reason could be the failure of the squib of the stage breeding system, RIA Novosti sources said earlier.
The last time this happened was in 1983.
Russia has suspended launches with crews on board.
The penetration of man into space, the beginning of the exploration and use of outer space undoubtedly became the greatest accomplishment of earthly civilization in the twentieth century. But short-sighted politicians, heads of law enforcement agencies, ideologists and propagandists took advantage of the possibilities of rocket and space technology. As a result, outer space has become a natural environment to which the arms race has spread.
In this chapter, the main attention is drawn to the difficulties that have already arisen or may arise in the way of turning outer space into an arena for peaceful cooperation of all states. They are based, in our opinion, primarily on imperial ambitions and the excessively utilitarian, selfish position of the Republican administration of George W. Bush Jr. in relation to Russian-American relations in general and cooperation in space, in particular. But the Russian cosmonautics is also not free from shortcomings and problems, including those related to the development of a national policy in the field of exploration and use of outer space, with the attraction of the space program’s potential to support social and economic reforms in Russia, which is clearly lagging behind the real possibilities, and with one-sided approach to international cooperation that has long ceased to meet today's realities.
The first group of these problems concerns strengthening and expanding the space demilitarization regime . Various aspects of the prevention of an arms race in outer space have already been reflected in existing treaties and agreements, as well as in resolutions of the UN General Assembly. In the speech of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation I.S. Ivanov at the 55th UN General Assembly, the idea of "strengthening strategic stability in the broadest sense of the term" was put forward. Noting that the strategy of survival in international relations should be replaced by the strategy of sustainable development and prosperity of mankind, the Russian Foreign Minister explained that strategic stability in the future should not be limited only to the further progressive development of the disarmament process, but also include ensuring international security, countering the use of the achievements of science and technology for purposes incompatible with progress, the strengthening of security and peace of mind for civil societies of the individual, the formation of a mechanism for the democratic management of international monetary, financial and trade and economic systems, the preservation of a clean and healthy environment and a number of other tasks of a non-military, humanitarian nature. Thus, the course of the world community in international relations will have to not only help reduce the level of military threats, but also ensure comprehensive security, create favorable prerequisites for moving towards a sustainable progressive civilization of the future.
Nominated by the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin’s initiative aimed at strengthening the demilitarization regime of outer space1, as it were, takes us back to the beginning of the space age, when the Soviet people saw their historical mission in the exploration of outer space for the benefit of all mankind and was ready to make any sacrifices for this. In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the following statement by the American researcher William Shelton from his book summing up the results of the first space decade: “It is extremely difficult to assess the degree of emotional and spiritual commitment of the Russian people to space. However, this is the incomprehensible essence of the Russian character, which in the end may turn out to be much more important than economic considerations or prestige in the eyes of the rest of the world. Those in the West who are engaged in realistic assessments of the Soviet potential cannot ignore this. We also cannot ignore Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who was the first to formulate and introduce into the public consciousness of Russians their perception of themselves as a people having significant fate in space" 2. According to W. Shelton, the ideas of K.E. Tsiolkovsky excited the national imagination of the Soviet people and thus became the material force that erected a reliable launching pad for a powerful and unexpected breakthrough across the cosmic frontier.
On the eve of the 21st century, cosmonautics has changed the "main profile" of its activity: it serves the interests of military confrontation in space and on Earth to a lesser extent, and at the same time is actively mastering a new, very productive function - a means of strengthening international stability, ensuring the comprehensive security of individual states and the entire world community, monitoring the planet's biosphere, a tool for conflict resolution and peacemaking.
The political conditions on the world stage are changing radically, and in the relations between states many areas of common interests have already appeared that require constructive behavior, cooperation and integration, the rejection of conflict and violent forms interaction with other participants in international relations. However, even under these conditions, a certain part of the potential of space technology is fully or partially oriented towards solving problems in the interests of military departments. According to experts, by 2020 at least 25 states will have military space systems at their disposal, which they will either create on their own or purchase abroad. There are a number of objective reasons for this. Firstly, a number of space systems for purely military purposes, which were created in the conditions of military confrontation, have not yet exhausted their resource. Their operation continues, although now they are faced with less ambitious military tasks, to which are added urgent tasks in the interests of civilian departments and commercial structures. Secondly, ensuring international security after the Cold War requires the improvement and daily operation of dual-use applied space systems serving both the military departments and many non-military ministries and departments, as well as private business. Such systems carry out global monitoring - the collection and distribution in real time of a variety of information necessary for the timely adoption of political and other decisions at the highest state and international level. Finally, military scientific research and development, designed to solve the long-term tasks of ensuring the defense capability of states, includes the problems of new systems of defensive and offensive weapons.
The creation of favorable conditions for the use of the potential of space technology in the interests of strategic stability in international relations in the 21st century, for the recovery of the world economy and the solution of urgent global and regional problems will require a serious and comprehensive assessment of the real and potential threats posed by the main trends in the development of national and international space programs that have not yet completely freed themselves from Cold War stereotypes.
In the foreseeable future, the scale and nature of the use of outer space for military purposes will depend on the means by which states will ensure their security, as well as on how successful the process of arms limitation and confidence-building measures in interstate relations will be during this period.
Considering the problem of reducing the level of militarization of outer space in the foreseeable future in the context of strengthening and expanding international legal principles for ensuring security and progressive disarmament, the conference participants will have to pay serious attention, on the one hand, to the need to develop new and improve existing treaties and agreements designed not to to allow the transformation of outer space into an arena for the combat use of the latest weapons systems, and on the other hand, to search for effective means, norms and procedures that would bring the activities of the world community to ensure the use of outer space exclusively for peaceful purposes to actions in the main areas of arms limitation and disarmament, primarily related to the strengthening of the nuclear non-proliferation regime and a complete ban on nuclear weapons tests. Putting these problems in the context of the complex stability of the entire system of international relations of the 21st century will make it possible to intensify the activities of the world community in the exploration and use of outer space, not only in the "disarmament" direction, but also in other areas where the comprehensive potential of space activities is not yet in demand in all its completeness.
Russia is doing everything possible to preserve and strengthen the regimes of all existing bilateral and multilateral treaties restricting the most dangerous types of weapons of mass destruction, and above all the ABM Treaty, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. However, the unequivocally tough stance of the new US Republican administration on the ABM Treaty, coupled with plans to deploy national system ABM (NMD) undermines the very foundations of constructive interaction between the Russian Federation and the United States on the problems of arms limitation and demilitarization of outer space. This is how George W. Bush's position on these issues was characterized on the eve of the presidential election in an analysis carried out by CNN in conjunction with Time magazine: withdrawing from the ABM Treaty, which Russia should follow… Supporting $20 billion in military R&D spending to develop weapons systems for the post-Cold War period3.
This line is already being implemented in practice, as evidenced by the statements of the new US Secretary of Defense D. Rumsfeld and Secretary of State C. Powell and the subsequent practical steps in the field of foreign and military policy USA. In this case, one does not need to be a professional analyst to argue that by their actions the republican administration is using brute pressure to force the Russian side to act in accordance with Article 2 of the Federal Law “On Ratification of the Treaty between Russian Federation and the United States of America on the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms”, adopted by the State Duma on April 14, 2000. This article reads: “The exceptional circumstances giving the Russian Federation, in accordance with Article VI of the START-2 Treaty, the right to withdraw from this Treaty in the exercise of its state sovereignty, among others, include:
1) violation by the United States of America of the START-2 Treaty, which can lead to a threat to the national security of the Russian Federation;
2) withdrawal of the United States of America from the Treaty between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America on the limitation of anti-missile defense systems, signed in Moscow on May 26, 1972, hereinafter referred to as the ABM Treaty, or violation of the ABM Treaty and related agreements;
3) the buildup of strategic offensive arms by states that are not parties to the START-2 Treaty in such a way that this will pose a threat to the national security of the Russian Federation;
4) the adoption and implementation by the United States of America, other states or unions of states, including the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, of such decisions in the field of military development that will create a threat to the national security of the Russian Federation, including the deployment on the territories of states that joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization after signing START II, nuclear weapons;
5) the deployment by the United States of America, other states or alliances of states of weapons that impede the functioning of the Russian missile attack warning system;
6) occurrence of emergency circumstances, including those of an economic or technogenic nature, which make it impossible for the Russian Federation to comply with the START-2 Treaty, or which may lead to a threat to the environmental security of the Russian Federation”4.
Political and military leaders, as well as experts from many states, will have to think seriously about the nature of the new threats to the world community that will arise as a result of the violation of the ABM Treaty. However, an analysis of the latest trends in the development of national and international space programs allows us to assert with a sufficient degree of certainty that the US attempts to achieve unilateral military advantages in space this time will not cause a “reaction” from other countries. It will be a "race without pursuers." Neither Russia nor the countries Western Europe, neither India, nor China, nor Japan intend to compete with the United States for leadership in the military use of outer space. These states are orienting their space programs towards solving more constructive problems in the interests of social, economic, scientific and technological progress. Thus, the answer to the question of who and what hinders the implementation of V.V. Putin's proposal, which provides for a sharp reduction in the scale of the militarization of space, is simple - this is the United States, stubbornly unwilling to learn from the history of the space age.
Manned cosmonautics - results, prospects, international cooperation is another group of important problems. The first manned flight into space is undoubtedly one of the greatest events in the history of civilization. Not only the flight itself, but the whole bright life of the first cosmonaut of the planet is inextricably linked with the cultural heritage of civilization. The merit of Yu.A. Gagarin before history lies in the fact that by his accomplishment he proved the reality of the advancement of mankind into the Universe, gave reason to thinkers to believe in the feasibility of the most daring plans related to the penetration of man into space, convinced scientists and engineers involved in astronautics that their scientific calculation can bring in the foreseeable future even more impressive results in the exploration and use of outer space.
The unique personal impressions of Yuri Gagarin and his followers, who were the first to see the Earth from space, became a kind of warning to all those who by their actions endanger the interests of living and future generations - whether it be the continuation of the arms race and the testing of new types of weapons of mass destruction, the reckless waste of natural resources and an increase in anthropogenic pressure on the biosphere or political actions leading to national strife, separatism, local conflicts, other forms of hostility and confrontation between nations, religions and cultures. The thoughts of the first cosmonaut about the beauty and uniqueness of the planet Earth remained in the memory of contemporaries - the cradle of a powerful mind, obliged to defend life, goodness and harmony "at home" and in the Universe, about the need to unite the efforts of countries and peoples in the name of strengthening peace, expanding mutually beneficial cooperation in solving the aggravated global and regional problems that threaten the survival of mankind and the diversity of life itself on the planet, are carefully passed down from generation to generation, serve as a beneficial basis for the development of culture, the reproduction of the spiritual wealth of many nations, the formation of a social consciousness worthy of a high civilization.
Paying tribute to the feat of the first cosmonaut of the planet, we should not forget that modern manned cosmonautics is more a sphere of international cooperation than an area of "individual" activity of individual states. But many observers and experts, and not only Russians, have doubts and concerns about the desire of the American side to put its pragmatic national interests above the interests of all other participants.
Let us recall the statements of the authoritative legislator J. Brown, made at the beginning of the establishment of cooperation relations between the "post-Soviet" Russian and American space programs: , are cheap and at the same time have world-class scientific and technical centers that could be useful to us. If we allow them to fall apart, to waste their scientific and technical resources, they will not help anyone, including us and themselves. On the contrary, most likely they will be picked up by some other state that will use these resources of theirs to the detriment of us”5.
It is unlikely that temporary economic and financial difficulties of one of the participants in international space cooperation can be considered a convincing reason for violating the principles of equality and mutual benefit. It is also impossible to allow Russian-American cooperation in space in the future to be overshadowed by situations similar to those that arose at an early stage of work on the project of the international space station Alpha, when the American side formulated ownership rights to the station itself and to the information obtained during its operation, proceeding solely from its legislation. R. Clarke, assistant director of HACA for policy coordination and international relations, commented on the situation then: “The Russians have no experience in legal matters (regarding the interaction of contractors participating in space projects. - G.X.). And they are well aware that we cannot change our laws governing the purchase of equipment to make an exception for one contract.
As far as can be judged from the most recent statements of the first persons of the Republican administration and the comments of the American press, Russia will be under very strong pressure in order to further oust it from the ISS project and transfer it from the status of a full-fledged participant in the project with all the ensuing rights to its results in the best case in the status of a contractor dutifully fulfilling the orders of the "collective owner" of the orbital station, led by the United States. The feat of Yu. A. Gagarin and everything that was done by Soviet and Russian cosmonauts in developing methods for training and training international crews who worked fruitfully at the Mir station is regarded by the ISS project management as a "common heritage" that can be freely disposed of in their selfish purposes.
The committees and subcommittees of the Congress that carry out legislative oversight of the US national space program continue to tighten sanctions against Russia, to impose fines for the disruption by the Russian side of the supply of equipment for the orbital complex. Of course, Russia's violation of the work schedules on the ISS, even for objective reasons, does not do her credit. However, much more biased is the steady line of the American side to give unjustifiably high priority to the interests of its own aerospace industry, to provide new jobs only in American corporations participating in the ISS project, to obtain unilateral control over the results of experiments that will be carried out on board the orbital stations.
Such members of the American Congress as J. Sensenbrenner or D. Rokabaker constantly criticized Russia's actions in the ISS project with a tenacity worthy of other uses and called for the restriction of its rights. They demanded that a "Report on Russia" be submitted to Congress, on the basis of which they proposed to take "final and decisive measures."
Is it possible in such circumstances to count on the fact that space activities will serve the cause of a positive restructuring of international relations, will make tangible contributions to the solution of global and regional problems? Should Russia put aside its national interests and accept double standards in bilateral and multilateral space projects for the sake of some "common good" in the distant future? If we are to be long-term partners, both sides must learn to promote the national interests of the other side. General dedication to research good foundation in order for Russia and the United States to be equal partners here. The United States must be sincere in its assessment of the special conditions prevailing in Russia. Only then will the prospects for Russia's participation in the International Space Station program and various bilateral Russian-American projects be favorable.
Trying to find answers to the question of who and what makes it difficult to implement an alternative to mutually beneficial and equal cooperation in the field of manned space flights, it is impossible not to look in the mirror. But have the leaders of Russian cosmonautics and other persons responsible for Russia's participation in international cooperation done everything to somehow limit this kind of "imperial ambitions" of the United States in space cooperation? I think not all. After all, the US approaches to economic and scientific-technical cooperation with other countries are quite well known, and a lot of research has been done on this topic7. Nevertheless, the leadership of the RCA (and now RCA) continues to see for itself only one “preferred” partner. At the same time, countries of Western Europe, China, India, Japan, Brazil, and many other countries are showing keen interest in space cooperation with Russia.
During his business trip to the United States in the mid-1990s, the author of these lines appeared in one of the American aerospace magazines with a small note in which he pointed out, to put it mildly, the insincerity of the American side in its cooperation with Russia in the exploration and use of outer space . As an alternative to the current situation, the author proposed the idea of a "Euro-Asian space project". Such a project could be implemented by several states in Europe and Asia, and possibly other regions of the planet, as an alternative to the practice of international cooperation in space in the 1990s, which was dominated by the United States. Such countries as Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Japan, India, Australia, possessing developed space technology potentials and other material capabilities, could combine their efforts and resources to implement a multilateral project of the 21st century, unprecedented in its scale8. It is hard to imagine how American scientists, officials, journalists close to the American space program were “offended” at me - what impudence and ingratitude ...
Economic and applied aspects of the use of space and management of space activities - topics that are of interest to all participants in space activities at the beginning of the 21st century, among which there are more and more non-governmental, commercial organizations involved in the operation of applied space systems and the provision of an ever wider range of space services to customers.
Russia has great opportunities for the successful development of space activities, taking into account the changing conditions in the country and on the world stage. The unique potential of space technology, invaluable long-term experience in the operation of space complexes and participation in international cooperation in the exploration and practical use of outer space, combined with industrial infrastructure and highly qualified personnel, are the reliable foundation on which the ministries and departments of the federal government, in cooperation with private business can significantly strengthen Russia's position in world space activities.
Among the promising areas of space activities in which Russia can achieve real success are the production in orbit of materials and products with unique properties that are impossible to achieve under terrestrial conditions; improvement of technologies for terrestrial sectors of the economy based on the achievements of the space program, as well as the provision of a wide range of paid services to consumers through the use of space systems and vehicles.
As practice shows recent years, Russian and foreign clients, service users, partners and investors still do not have a correct understanding of the nature and real possibilities of the Russian space program. The reasons for this are primarily the preservation of interdepartmental barriers, the lack of Russian organizations, and primarily space organizations, the necessary experience and qualified personnel in the field of space commercialization, as well as low activity in transferring the achievements of the Russian space program to the domestic and world markets. .
The Russian space business originated in the state-controlled rocket and space industry of the national economy. Now qualitatively new structures for the Russian socio-economic environment are pouring into it, showing initiative in the implementation of non-state projects for the development of specific types of space technology, the provision of services related to the use of applied space systems, as well as consulting, marketing of space technologies, goods and services, etc. Calculations show that the Russian aerospace industry is currently attracting investments in the amount of about 800 million dollars a year. Further improvement of consulting services, whose main task is to increase the share of the space program in the domestic and world markets, will not only increase investment in the aerospace industry, but also create powerful incentives for progress in other high-tech sectors of the Russian economy9.
Among the tasks, the solution of which will ensure the progressive development of the planet's space infrastructure - with a wider participation of private business - in the context of the globalization of world politics and the economy, the following can be mentioned:
Implementation of a realistic, interdisciplinary long-term forecast of the evolution of the global space infrastructure for a period of at least 100 years;
Deepening and expansion of sustainable direct and feedback infrastructure of the world astronautics with the daily economic and socio-political activities of individual states, regions and the entire world community;
Improving the existing and creating new system international cooperation, cooperation and integration of the efforts of participants in space activities. In this area, it is necessary to reduce the share of projects focused on military-political confrontation, remove space systems from the unilateral control of military departments, and recognize the prospects of including private business in the main participants in space activities.
By gaining access to space technologies, goods and services, private business, led by responsible citizens, can become the main driving force behind the widespread commercialization of space activities. The conjuncture of the existing and prospective market of space technologies, goods and services is not an established stable system of norms, rules and procedures for private business, but an object of deep study with the aim of further transformation in the interests of participants in space activities, real and potential consumers of space goods and services. The involvement of private business in space activities will make it more active, expand its ties with clients, investors, and the general public. Private business, including Russian business, is interested in creating reliable and cost-effective interconnections between the global space infrastructure and the real needs and economic opportunities of the world community at the planetary, regional, national and local levels. Looking for ways and means to create full sense a viable model of the space infrastructure of the future, which will require the negotiation and adoption of a dedicated space budget, private business will be able to overcome the inertia inherent in space activities, which are led by public authorities.
It is well known that the revitalization of private business activity in the markets of space technologies, goods and services is not capable of ensuring the progressive development of the world cosmonautics without adequate support for space programs from the federal budgets of the respective participating states. However, even in conditions when the “critical mass” of the planetary space budget is made up of the national space budgets of space powers, states that produce or operate certain types of space technology, as well as states that are consumers of services provided by states or international organizations that control applied systems, it is the private business can be a source of a noticeable increase in the planetary space budget.
At the beginning of the 21st century, a significant share of the financing of world space activities comes from international space communications consortiums, in which private business plays an increasingly important role. The share of participation of private business in improving existing and creating new national, regional and global systems of space communications, remote sensing, meteorology, navigation, etc. will increase steadily. The continuation of this favorable trend will be able to expand the scope of access for clients and consumers to new space technologies, some of which the private business will create and operate independently. At the same time, private business will maintain and deepen interaction with state-controlled space enterprises, which, among other things, will not only stimulate the process of commercialization of space activities, but also expand the sphere of demand for space goods and services by society.
Here we come to the problems of the viability of the Russian cosmonautics, which cannot be attributed to the difficulties of the transition period and to the "cunning" of foreign states, international organizations or private corporations, allegedly wanting to infringe on the interests of Russia in every possible way.
Cosmonautics is a unique historical heritage of the Russian State. Our ancestors and contemporaries worked harder than others to open the way to space for humanity. Only people with little knowledge or those who deliberately seek to distort the real state of affairs can challenge Russia's significant contributions to the development of world cosmonautics. Russia still has at its disposal a comprehensive potential for further study and practical use of outer space. And how it will dispose of this potential in the future is not only the business of the leaders of the space industry. The space program cannot be considered without the closest connection with the most important areas of development of society, it should be oriented towards a constant increase in real contributions to the solution of priority political and socio-economic tasks that affect the vital interests of every Russian.
The difficulties that Russia faced at the stage of building a democratic society and transition to a market economy cannot be attributed to the sluggishness of the leaders of the state and the space program, as well as legislators in search of means and methods to increase the economic and social efficiency of the space program. We often hear that all the troubles of domestic cosmonautics are the result of insufficient and irregular funding, a consequence of the deprivation of the space program of the status of maximum favored nation in comparison with other sectors of the national economy and science. This, of course, is true, but, unfortunately, not all. A wise policy in space can be pursued with both large and small means.
The Russian space program on the threshold of the 21st century can be compared to a dinosaur - a huge and strong animal of the distant past, whose miniature brain was unable to adapt it to the changing natural conditions on planet Earth. Having proved uncompetitive in the evolution of life, the dinosaurs gave way to their ecological niche for smaller but more intelligent animal species.
What can bring the Russian cosmonautics, undeservedly put on a starvation ration, out of the crisis? At the initial stage of space activity, its importance was usually assessed solely by technical indicators - the number of launches, the weight of the payload, the duration of stay of astronauts and objects in space, the complexity of onboard equipment, and the amount of information received. All this was unequivocally linked to the significant military capabilities of the state. In the new conditions, with a well-thought-out organization of promising scientific research and development and a choice for the implementation of the most cost-effective projects, a deep professional analysis political, economic, legal, social, philosophical and other humanitarian aspects of space activities, their comprehensive consideration when choosing priorities for the future and formulating the conditions for Russia's participation in international cooperation, studying the state of the world market for space products and services and developing a strategy for Russia's activities in this market.
The future of space activities is now more linked to the ability to meet the daily needs and needs of society. Space program managers should be able to explain to legislators and the public the usefulness of space activities, its ability to solve a wide range of priority tasks in an accessible and understandable way; convincingly prove competitiveness in open and fair competition with non-space areas of the economy and the service sector. Most of the national and international space programs have already turned their faces to the society, have made changes to their long-term plans and priority systems, created divisions for analyzing the economic situation, transferring achievements to non-space industries, and stepped up work to explain to the general public the meaning and benefits of space projects. To carry out new tasks, professionals are invited to the space programs, who in the past practically did not work for space. These are economists, political scientists, sociologists, lawyers, public relations specialists, philosophers, futurologists. Through the joint efforts of engineering and technical personnel and representatives of the humanities, space programs are adapting to the changing political and socio-economic situation on our planet.
Unfortunately, clearly outdated and ineffective purely departmental methods of planning and implementing space activities are widely practiced in Russia. The low efficiency of the infrastructure of the space program, its weak and insufficiently professional interaction with the daily internal and foreign policy, with the socio-economic development of the state and individual regions, along with a condescending disregard for public opinion, seriously overshadow the prospects for Russia to gain a worthy place in world cosmonautics.
The leaders of the Russian cosmonautics continue to shy away from an open and constructive dialogue with legislators and the public, do not pay due attention to the search for consumers of products and services of their industry, do not study the domestic and foreign markets with the necessary depth, do not develop a long-term strategy for Russia's participation in international cooperation in the study and use of outer space. The concept of space activities was developed and adopted secretly, in secret from the public, in the same way additions and changes are made to it. As for the media, with persistence worthy of another use, they literally revel in materials about accidents, equipment failures on Earth and in space, unverified rumors and gossip about those who created and are creating the space glory of our Motherland.
For the development of Russian cosmonautics, deputies of the Federation Council and State Duma Those exercising legislative oversight of the space program should rely on the assistance of highly qualified independent experts in their activities. This will help them to substantiate legislative initiatives, to understand the proposals with which they are addressed by federal agencies, often interested in promoting their "corporate" plans rather than in ensuring the interests of the whole society. It is also necessary to seriously engage in comprehensive forecasting of space activities and bring its main results to the highest officials of the state in order to fully use the comprehensive potential of domestic cosmonautics in solving the most pressing problems of Russia's domestic and foreign policy.
It should be noted that in the USA and other countries there is a practice of bringing to the attention of taxpayers program documents on the space program - presidential messages, annual reports to the highest legislative bodies, reports of space departments. Unfortunately, the Concept of Russia's space activities - the only document of this kind - is written in dry "telegraphic" language and it is simply impossible to read it to a "mere mortal". As for the media, they practically ignore the space theme. Here is one of the typical reports of the modern press: “Yesterday, under the chairmanship of the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin, a regular meeting of the Security Council of the Russian Federation was held. The agenda included issues of long-term policy and urgent measures in the field of space activities of the Russian Federation. Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, General of the Army Anatoly Kvashnin and Director General of Rosaviakosmos Yury Koptev spoke on these issues. Not a word about what the Russian space program will be like in the coming years.
The space program is a public affair. It can be successful if it is implemented under the control of the state and serves the national interests of Russia. The initiative of individual design bureaus and research and production associations, their search for sources of extrabudgetary funding should not violate the principle of priority of the national interests of the space program. The potential of Russian cosmonautics is far from exhausted. You can return it to a competitive position without significant costs. All that is needed is political will, perseverance and energy, which Russian society has in abundance.
Notes
1. Speech by the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin at the UN Millennium Summit on September 6, 2000. Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation about the UN.
2. Wilpam Shelton. Soviet Space Exploration. The First Decade. N.Y., 1968, p. fourteen.
3. CNN/AllPoptics. Election 2000. CNN with Time. November 2, 2000, p. 2.
4. Federal law "On the ratification of the Treaty between the Russian Federation and the United States of America on the further reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms." Moscow, April 14, 2000 Article 2.
5. European Space Report. February 1993. Vol. 4. No. 2, p. eight.
6. Space News. December 6-12, 1993, p. twenty.
7. See, for example, G.A. Arbatov (team leader). USA: Scientific and Technological Revolution and Foreign Policy Trends. M., 1974; G.A. Arbatov, V.I. Zhurkin, V.I. Pavlyuchenko, responsible ed. US global strategy in the context of the scientific and technological revolution. M., 1979; I.L. Sheydin. Non-military factors in foreign policy USA. M., 1984; GS. Hosea. USA: space and politics. . M., 1987.
8. Air/Space. April/May 1995, pp. 58-59.
9- For more details see: G. Khozin, A. Golovinkin, O. Pivovarov, S. Konyaev. Potential of the Market for Space Technologies, Goods and Services in the 21st Century—in: The Space Transportation Market: Evolution or Revolution? Dordrecht-London-Boston. 2000, pp.1-9.
G. S. Khozin. GREAT OPPOSITION IN SPACE (USSR - USA)