Psychology: Attitudes in communication and conditions for effective speech perception in adolescence, Coursework. Attitudes of understanding-oriented communication Characteristics of understanding communication Attitudes of communication
The existence of many different definitions of the concept of "communication" is associated with different views of scientists on this problem. In a brief psychological dictionary, it is proposed to define communication as “a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing conflicts between people, which includes the exchange of information, the development of a unified strategy and interaction, the perception and understanding of another person.” A.A. Bodalev proposes to consider communication as "the interaction of people, the content of which is the exchange of information using various means of communication to establish relationships between people." A.A. Leontiev understands communication not as an interindividual, but as a social phenomenon”, the subject of which “should not be considered in isolation”. The point of view of A.A. Leontiev on “communication as a kind of activity” is supported by other authors, for example, V.N. Panferov.
Communication- communication between people, during which there is a psychological contact, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience, mutual understanding.
The problem of communication is also considered in the works of philosophers (B.D. Parygin, L.P. Buevoy, M.S. Kagan, V.S. Korobeinikov, etc.)
Based on this abundance of views on the problem of communication, it must be considered from the philosophical, sociological and psychological sides.
The philosophical approach is based on the fact that it is the social concept that justifies communication as a way to implement the internal evolution of the social structure of society, a group in the dialectical interaction of the individual and society.
With the psychological approach, communication is defined as a specific form of activity and as an independent process of interaction necessary for the implementation of other types of personality activity. Psychologists note the presence of the main need of the individual - in communication, as an important factor in self-formation.
Communication is characterized by: content, functions and means.
The content of communication can be different:
- transmission of information
- perception of each other
- peer review of each other
- mutual influence of partners
- partners interaction
- activity management, etc.
Communication functions are allocated in accordance with the content of communication.
There are several classifications of communication functions. V. N. Panferov identifies six of them:
- communicative(implementation of the relationship of people at the level of individual, group and social interaction)
- informational(exchange of information between people)
- cognitive(comprehension of meanings based on representations of imagination and fantasy)
- emotive(manifestation of an individual's emotional connection with reality)
- conative(management and correction of mutual positions)
- creative(development of people and the formation of new relationships between them)
Other sources distinguish four main functions of communication:
- instrumental(communication acts as a social mechanization of management and transmission of information necessary to perform a certain action)
- syndicated(communication is a means of bringing people together)
- self-expression(communication acts as a form of mutual understanding, psychological context)
- translational(transfer of specific methods of activity, assessments)
- expressive(mutual understanding of experiences and emotional states)
- social control i (regulations of behavior and activities)
- socialization(formation of interaction skills in society in accordance with accepted norms and rules), etc.
Communication suffers if at least one of the listed functions is impaired or absent, therefore, when analyzing real communication processes, it is useful to first diagnose the representation of these functions, and then take measures to correct them.
Structure of communication
The concept of "communication" is complex, therefore it is necessary to designate its structure. In the psychological literature, when characterizing the structure of communication, they usually distinguish its three interconnected aspects: communicative, interactive and perceptual.
Communicative side
The communicative side of communication is the exchange of information between people. Understanding a person by a person is connected with the establishment and preservation of communication.
Sources of information in communication:- signals directly from another person;
- signals from their own sexor-perceptual systems;
- information about the results of activities;
- information from inner experience;
- information about the likely future.
Depending on the requirements of the moment, different sources of information and their different content come to the fore.
A person must be able to somehow distinguish “good” information from “bad” information. How does this happen? An interesting explanation was offered by psychologist B. F. Porshnev. He came to the conclusion that speech is a way of suggestion, or suggestion, but there is “there is also a counter psychological activity called counter-suggestion, counter-suggestion, which contains methods of protection against the action of speech.”
B. F. Porshnev singled out 3 types of countersuggestion: avoidance, authority and misunderstanding. Avoidance means avoiding contact with a partner (a person is inattentive, does not listen, does not look at the interlocutor, finds a reason to be distracted). Avoidance is manifested not only by avoiding communication with another person, but also by avoiding certain situations. For example, people who don't want to be influenced by their opinion or decision simply don't show up for meetings or appointments. The action of authority lies in the fact that, having divided all people into authoritative ones, a person trusts only the first and refuses to trust the second. You can find many reasons for assigning authority to a particular person (status, superiority in parameters, attractiveness in specific situations, etc.). The reasons are determined by their own history and core values. The effectiveness of communication will depend on the nature of the formation of ideas about the authority of the interlocutor. Sometimes dangerous information can also come from people we generally trust. In a quiet case, we can defend ourselves with a kind of misunderstanding of the message itself.
It is important for almost all people to be listened to and heard. For all who are interested in effective communication, it is important to be able to pursue psychological barriers, i.e. be able to manage attention.
There is a whole group of techniques to attract attention:- reception" neutral phrase". At the beginning of communication, a phrase is pronounced that is not related to the main topic, but has meaning and value for all those present.
- reception "z" attractions” - the speaker at the beginning speaks very quietly, very incomprehensibly, unintelligibly, which makes others listen.
- reception making eye contact- staring at a person, we attract his attention; by moving away from the gaze, we show that we do not want to communicate. But in communication it is important not only to attract attention, but also to support it.
The first group of attention maintenance techniques are “isolation” techniques (isolate communication from external factors - noise, lighting, conversation, or be able to isolate yourself from internal factors - instead of listening, pondering your remarks, or simply waiting for the end of the speech to enter into a conversation yourself) .
The second group of techniques is associated with “imposing a rhythm”. A person's attention is constantly fluctuating, therefore, by changing the characteristics of voice and speech, we do not allow the interlocutor to relax and miss the necessary information.
And, finally, the third group of maintenance techniques is accentuation techniques. You can draw attention to the necessary information using certain words (“please pay attention to ...”, “it is important to note that ...”, etc.) or by contrasting with the surrounding background.
Interactive side
For a correct understanding of the communication process, it is important to imagine the actions of your partner, which are carried out in certain situations. The second side of communication is interactive, which consists in organizing interaction between individuals, i.e. exchange not only knowledge, but also actions.
One of the possible ways of understanding the situation of communication is the perception of positions relative to each other. The approach to situation analysis depending on positions was developed by E. Bern in line with transactional analysis and his followers (T. Harris, M. James and D. Jonjeval, etc.). base states: child, adult or parent. The state of the child is the actualization of attitudes and behavior developed in childhood (emotionality, mobility, playfulness or depression, etc.). The state of an adult is turned to reality (mindfulness, maximum orientation towards a partner). A parent is such a state of the EGO, the feelings and attitudes of which are related to the role of a parent (criticality, condescension, arrogance, concern, etc.). The success of communication depends on whether the ego states of the communicants correspond to each other. So, such pairs of ego-states as “child-child”, “adult-adult”, “parent-child” are favorable for communication. For success in communication, all other combinations of ego-states must be brought to the above.
Perceptual side
The third important aspect of communication is perceptual. It means the process of perception of each other by partners in communication and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis. From the point of view of perception, it is important to correctly form the first impression. Psychologists have discovered that the image of another person can be built according to different typical schemes. The scheme of perception is often used according to the type of reassessment of the qualities of people. When meeting with a person who surpasses us in an important partner, we evaluate him more positively. And if we are dealing with a person whom we surpass, then we underestimate him. At the same time, it should be known that superiority is fixed in one parameter, and underestimation occurs in several parameters. This error in perception has its name - the superiority factor.
An equally important parameter in the perception of another person is whether we like this person outwardly or not. If we like a person outwardly, then we tend to consider him more intelligent, interesting, etc. This error in perception is associated with an overestimation or underestimation of a person’s properties and is called attraction factor.
The next diagram is related to the so-called "attitude towards us" factor. Those people who treat us well seem to us better than those who treat us badly.
When forming first impressions, these perceptual patterns of people are called the halo effect. halo effect It manifests itself in the fact that when forming a first impression, a general positive impression of a person leads to a reassessment of an unknown person. It follows that our first impression is always wrong. But it's not. Special studies show that an adult with communication experience is able to accurately determine the characteristics of a partner, this accuracy occurs only in neutral situations. In real life, there is always a certain percentage of errors.
With long-term communication, the results of the first impression continue to act. In constant communication, a deeper and more objective understanding of the partner becomes important. It is known that the abilities of adequate other individuals are different for different people. Why? Some believe that it depends on life experience (but there are young people who can see in a partner and understand what is happening to him, etc.)
Psychological studies show that the entire appearance (a person's face, his gestures, facial expressions, gaits, manner of standing, sitting) carries information about his emotional states, about his attitude towards others, about his attitude towards himself.
In order to understand a partner in communication, not only knowledge and experience are needed, but also a focus on him (the desire to understand what he thinks about, why he is worried, etc.). The mechanism of this type of perception of another is empathy. It is based on the ability to put oneself in the place of another, to feel his condition and position, and to take all this into account in one's behavior.
It is important in communication to take into account the ways and mechanisms of building interaction. How does a person explain the behavior of other people in practice? A whole trend arose: the study of the processes and results of causal attribution (attribution of causes) of behavior. When does causal attribution occur? When difficulties arise in joint activities. For example, an employee is having a job. And it can interpret the reason for being late in different ways - this is due to attribution (you can see the reason for being late in the circumstances, i.e. motivate by external attribution; you can look for the reason in yourself, i.e. motivate by internal attribution). Important in understanding the essence of communication is the question of the means and mechanisms of influence of participants in communication on each other.
Means of communication
Language is the main means of communication. “Language is a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication.” A sign is any material object (object, phenomenon, event). The total content that is embedded in a sign is called its meaning. Assimilation of the meanings of signs, ways of organizing them to convey a message, people learn to speak a particular language.
All signs are divided as follows:
- intentional- specially produced for the transmission of information
- non-intentional- unintentionally giving out this information.
Signs of emotions can act as non-intentional signs (trembling hands give out excitement), pronunciation features, accent can become an indicator of the place of origin, the social environment of a person. These signs speak about the person himself, so it is important to learn how to notice them and correctly decipher them.
The main mechanisms of knowing another person in the process of communication are: identification, empathy and reflection.
Identification means the simple fact that one of the ways to understand another person is to become like him. In a situation of interaction, people often use this technique, when an assumption about the internal state of a partner is based on an attempt to put oneself in his place.
Empathy is the ability to comprehend the emotional state of another person. A person can identify himself with a communication partner, accept. The process of understanding each other is complicated by the phenomenon of reflection. This is not just knowing or understanding a partner, but knowing how a partner understands me, a kind of process of mirror relationships with each other.
Communication includes certain ways of influencing partners on each other. These include: infection, suggestion, persuasion and imitation.
Infection is an unconscious exposure to certain mental states. It manifests itself through the transmission of a certain emotional state (for example, “sickness” in stadiums during sports competitions)
Suggestion- this is a purposeful unreasoned influence of one person on another. Suggestion is an emotional-volitional influence. Suggestion depends on age, on fatigue. The decisive condition for effective suggestion is the authority of the suggester.
Belief- reasoned impact on the consciousness of the individual.
Imitation- with it, the behavioral features of another person are reproduced, i.e. we are talking about the assimilation of the proposed patterns of behavior.
Types and levels of communication
In the scientific literature, the following types of communication are distinguished:
- “Mask contact”- formal communication, when there is no desire to understand the interlocutor, the usual masks are used (politeness, modesty, indifference, etc., a set of facial expressions, gestures that allow you to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor).
- Primitive communication- when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object. If a person is needed, then they actively come into contact with him, if he interferes, they push him away. When they get what they want, they lose further interest in the interlocutor and do not hide it.
- Formally- role-playing communication is such communication when both the content and the means of communication are regulated. Instead of knowing the partner's personality, they manage with knowledge of his social role.
- Business conversation takes into account the characteristics of the personality of the partner, his character, age, but the interests of the case are more significant.
- Spiritual, interpersonal communication is possible when each participant has the image of the interlocutor, knows his personal characteristics, can anticipate his reactions, takes into account the interests and beliefs of the partner.
- manipulative communication is aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor, using different techniques (flattery, deceit, demonstration of kindness, etc.) depending on the characteristics of the interlocutor's personality.
- Secular fellowship- it is characterized by non-objectivity (people do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases). This communication is closed, since the point of view of people on a particular issue does not matter and does not determine the nature of communications.
Entering into communication, a person enters into an infinite number of relationships, i.e. communication takes place at different levels.
There are several points of view on the existence of levels of communication.
American psychologist E.T. Shostrom believes that there are two main levels and two types of communication - manipulation and actualization. Manipulation is the attitude and treatment of people as things. Actualization is the recognition of the independence of the other and his right to be different; it is natural; fullness of personal, emotional life at the moment.
Soviet researcher V.N. Sagatovsky defines four levels of communication:
- Level of manipulation.
- Level " reflexive game” means that the interlocutors, in general, recognize that each of them has their own goals and plans for relationships, but strive to “beat” the partner in communication and show the failure of his plans.
- Level of legal communication. Here the main thing is the coordination of behavior on the basis of norms and rules that must be fulfilled by partners.
- Level of moral communication. At this level, interaction occurs on the basis of the unity of internal, spiritual principles. The American psychologist E.Bern believes that there are six main ways to communicate “zero communication” - withdrawal into oneself: for example, a silent line at the doctor’s office, passengers on the subway. No one speaks during such communication, but everyone looks at each other (cute - unattractive, who it is, etc.)
rituals- these are the norms of communication formed by society (greet, thank, say goodbye, etc.)
Work Everyone knows what fruitful working communication is.
Entertainment- in this version of communication there is also a lot of formalization. Everyone knows what tone is adopted for meetings with loved ones, which one is for communication in an unfamiliar company.
Games- this is a repetitive communication on two levels, when a person portrays one thing, in fact he means something completely different, for example, a conversation between a doctor and a patient.
Proximity is the highest level of communication. A person turns to another "with all the powers of the soul." E. Bern believes that intimacy can be one-sided (“blindness of feelings”). Thus, a modern person striving to learn to understand himself and others must know what communication is, its structure (device), in order to take into account the difference in levels, mismatch of positions in communication and be able to reorient in the course of interaction, “hear” the other, find with him " mutual language".
One of the features of communication is the formation of interpersonal relationships.
Based on the foregoing and the functions of communication, G. Andreeva identifies three aspects of communication:
♦ communication (exchange of information);
♦ interactive (interaction of partners);
♦ perceptual (understanding of a person by a person; mutual perception of partners).
Communicative side communication is closely related to the exchange of information, but cannot be exhaustively disclosed from the point of view of information theory. Communication is not only the reception and transmission of information, but also the relationship of at least two people, where each is an active subject of interaction. In addition to the exchange of information, there is an orientation to the other, that is, the motives, goals, attitudes of the information object (another subject) are analyzed. In the act of interpersonal communication, an important role is played by the significance of information, the desire to perceive its general meaning.
Another feature of the communicative process is that, thanks to the sign system, communication partners influence each other. At the same time, the effectiveness of communication depends on the degree of this influence, that is, we are talking about changing the type of relationship that has developed between communicators. Such influence is overlooked in the informational approach.
Communicative influence occurs under the condition that a single system of meanings is accepted by all participants in the act of communication. Only under this condition can partners reach mutual understanding. If there is no such common understanding, there may be obstacles in the process of communication, the so-called "communication barriers".
They arise as a result of the action of psychological factors - different dispositions, attitudes, value orientations of people, their individual psychological characteristics, etc.
Thus, a communicative barrier is a psychological obstacle to the adequate perception of information between communication partners.
According to Yu. S. Kryzhanovskaya and V. P. Tretyakov, in the process of business communication, three communication barriers and their various modifications may arise: "authority", "avoidance" and "misunderstanding". The former provide protection from the source of information, the latter - from the information itself.
Bar "r" authority. Dividing all people into authoritative and non-authoritative, a person trusts only the first. That is, trust or distrust seems to be personified and depend not on the objectivity of the information, but on the one who speaks. For example, older people listen little to the advice of young .
Trust depends on social position, belonging to a real "authoritative" group; from the attractiveness of appearance; benevolent attitude towards the addressee of the impact; competence, sincerity.
"avoidance" barrier. A person avoids sources of influence, avoids contact with the interlocutor, makes every effort not to perceive the message. To neutralize this barrier, you need to pay attention and keep it. For the most attention
such factors influence: the relevance and importance of information, ITS novelty, non-standard presentation, surprise, intensity of information transfer, sonority of the voice and its modulation.
Bar "r" misunderstanding. Sometimes the source of information is trustworthy, but the information "does not reach" (we do not hear, do not see, do not understand it). There are such barriers of misunderstanding:
phonetic (occurs when they speak a foreign language; they use a lot of foreign words or special terminology; they speak quickly, incomprehensibly, with an accent);
semantic (the one who speaks and the one who listens put different meanings into words, their different understanding; the use of slang words, etc.);
stylistic (style of presentation, compliance of form and content with the basic rules of structuring information: the frame rule and the chain rule).
The essence of the frame rule is that the beginning and end of the information series is remembered better than the middle. The frame in communication is the beginning and end of the conversation. At the same time, in the initial communication, the most important part of the conversation is the beginning, and in repeated business communication, the end of the conversation. The rule of the chain is based on the fact that all information must be built in some way, well-arranged, systematized, connected in a chain;
logical (occurs when there is no sequence and system for presenting information: there is no internal structure of speech; basic logical rules are not followed, unreliable or insufficient argumentation).
The interactive side of communication is characterized by the fact that the interlocutors implement interaction, that is, they plan joint activities, exchange actions, produce forms and norms of joint actions aimed at mutually changing their behavior, activities, relationships, attitudes in order to ensure the effectiveness of communication and develop a unified strategy.
Interaction is a necessary and obligatory element of joint activity; it is based on various interpersonal contacts and actions. Interaction is characterized by a causal dependence of the actions of partners, when the behavior of each is both a stimulus and a reaction to the behavior of others.
The structural components of the process of interaction in communication are the subjects of interaction, mutual communication (based on formal and informal relations), mutual influence, mutual changes in the subjects of interaction (change of points of view, attitudes, attitudes, etc.).
In the process of interaction, everyone seeks to focus on their goals and the goals of the partner. Depending on the degree of consideration in the interaction of these goals, the following strategies of behavior are distinguished:
♦ cooperation - the maximum achievement by the participants of interaction of their goals;
♦ opposition - focusing only on one's own goals without taking into account the interests of the partner;
♦ compromise - partial, intermediate (sometimes temporary) achievement of partners' goals for the sake of maintaining conditional equality and maintaining relations;
♦ Compliance - sacrificing one's own needs to achieve partners' goals;
♦ evasion - avoidance of contacts, refusal to achieve one's goals in order to prevent a partner from winning.
There are no good or bad behaviors listed above. It all depends on the specific situation of communication, the interests of partners and a number of other factors.
The effectiveness of interaction also depends on conditions such as distance in communication (personal space) and position in communication. In the structure of an adult personality, there are three states of "I": "parent", "adult", "child". The dominance of one or another state affects the nature of communication between people.
The perceptual side of communication is manifested in the perception of external signs of the interlocutor, in accordance with his special characteristics, in the interpretation and evaluation of his actions on this basis.
The most important, informative are such properties as facial expressions, expression (means of expressing feelings), gestures, posture, gait, appearance, features of voice and speech. The importance and sequence of the perception of these properties of the interlocutor, the assessment of one person by another significantly depends on individual, gender, age and professional differences. Children, for example, first learn to recognize behind facial expressions, then they become available to analyze the expression of emotions using gestures. Discrepancies were found during the perception and evaluation of subordinates by managers and vice versa.
The main task of perception is to form the first impression of a person. It is carried out under the influence of three factors - the factor of advantage, the factor of attractiveness and the factor of attitude towards the observer.
The action of the advantage factor often turns out to be in conditions of inequality of partners in one or another sphere - social, intellectual, group, etc. Its essence is that communication partners tend to systematically overestimate the different qualities of those people who are superior to them in certain parameters. If they are dealing with partners whom they, in their opinion, predominate in, then they underestimate them. In other words, there is either a general underestimation or a general overestimation of the partner.
Much depends on whether we like the appearance of a partner. If so, then we overestimate his psychological characteristics, if not, we underestimate him.
The attractiveness factor ensures the implementation of such a scheme: the more outwardly attractive a person is for us, the better he is for us in all respects. If a person is ugly, then other qualities are underestimated.
The attitude towards the observer regulates the inclusion of perception in the scheme: a positive attitude towards us causes a tendency to attribute positive properties to the partner and to reject, ignore negative ones. And vice versa: a clear unfriendly attitude causes a strong tendency to ignore the positive and exaggerate the negative.
The formation of the first impression is not an end in itself, but a regulator of further behavior. It is necessary in order to determine the main characteristics of the interlocutor and, accordingly, to determine the specific "communication technique" for them.
Section I. Psychology
Topic 5. Psychology of communication. Business conversation
Communication is a manifestation of the fundamental properties of the human psyche, which cannot live, create, work outside of this process. Personality is formed through communication and attitude to the outside world. An individual always retains this function, even when he is alone (when preparing a report, the student mentally conducts a discussion with fellow students, as with his opponents, selects examples, facts, and arguments for answers). Social experience shows that the level of competence of the chief is determined not only by his professional qualities, but also by the ability to competently, productively communicate with the staff of his company, institution. Therefore, a leader who cares about his authority must know the essence, means, types and mechanisms of communication. Mastering this art means achieving success in your work. |
5.1. Means, types, functions of communication
Communication is a complex socio-psychological process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a strategy for interaction, perception and understanding of a partner. In social terms, it acts as a means of transferring human culture and experience. Its specificity lies in the fact that the interlocutors reveal their subjective world to one another, show individual characteristics.
- material communication– exchange of objects and products of human activity for existence and development;
- cognitive - the transfer of knowledge, skills, abilities;
- conditional - the mutual influence of people on the creation of a state of physical and psychological readiness for any useful work (for example, for training);
- motivational - the transfer of motives, attitudes, motives for actions in a certain direction to each other;
- active communication- exchange of skills, operations, skills in order to improve practice.
Communication varies by:
- Number of participants: interpersonal, group, mass;
- Method: verbal (language, speech), non-verbal (facial expressions, gestures);
- The position of those communicating: contact (personal), remote (for example, through the media);
- Conditions: official (organized meetings), informal (on one's own initiative);
- Tasks: installation (for the purpose of acquaintance), informational (messaging);
- Means: direct (hand, head, voice sounds), indirect (trace, radio, television), direct (the ability to see, hear, feel), indirect (through intermediaries).
Channels of communication adequate to the senses:
- Visual;
- Auditory;
- Tactile (touch);
- Somatosensory (kinesthetic, feeling your body).
People have features in the perception of the outside world and another person (social perception). They are subdivided into visual, auditory, kinesthetic:
- visuals - they prefer to see everything with their own eyes, they like to tower over a partner;
- audials - perceive reality through auditory images: music, speech, sounds;
- kinesthetics - experience (emotionally) through the state of their body.
On a logical basis, we can name the following channels of communication: direct, indirect, controlled indirect:
- direct channel - the transfer of information in an explicit form;
- indirect (indirect)- information obtained in order to control or supplement what was previously accepted;
- controlled indirect channel- a message perceived as unintentional is presented as quite intentional (a convincing tone in a dubious situation).
Communication styles(by direction):
- Malleable - the need for people, self-preoccupation;
- Aggressive - the need to achieve success by controlling others;
- Detached - maintaining distance, solitude.
Types of communication(by direction):
- Altruistic(help others);
- manipulative(pursuing one's own goal);
- Missionary (non-intervention, cautious influence).
There are others: cooperation, compromise, rivalry (insisting on one's own), accommodation (maintaining relationships), avoiding (unpleasant).
Means of communication:
- Language is a system of words, expressions and rules for their combination into logical speech;
- Intonation - emotional expressiveness that can give a different shade to any phrase;
- Facial expression, posture, look- can reinforce or refute the meaning of what was said;
- Gestures - generally accepted or expressive (for expressiveness);
- Distance of interlocutors– depends on the degree of their trust, cultural and national traditions.
In speech, tempo, loudness, intonation are distinguished, which makes it possible to determine the emotional state of the individual, his attitude to the message being transmitted.
A person cannot consciously control the entire sphere of means of communication for a long time. Therefore, often even what he wants to hide is revealed, for example, through the movement of the hands, the expression of the eyes, the position of the legs, etc.
Communication strategy:
- Open - closed (Closed communication - unwillingness or inability of one of the partners to clearly convey their point of view, information);
- Monologic - dialogical;
- Role (social - role) - personal ("heart to heart").
An important issue in communication is openness, i.e. not only the sincerity of the speaker, but also the ability to impartially perceive the partner. High culture gives confidence that you will be understood correctly.
Communication tactics is the implementation of a strategy in a specific situation based on knowledge and possession of the technique, rules and methods of communication.
Types of communication:
- Contact masks (formal communication) - the lack of desire to understand the partner, take into account his individual characteristics. Usual cliches are used (politeness, strictness, compassion, equanimity, etc.), feigned facial expressions, gestures, a set of phrases, which allows you to hide the true attitude towards the interlocutor;
- Primitive communication- A person is judged on the basis of his usefulness. Needed - they will actively make contact, interfere - they will not notice, they got what they want - they will push them away;
- Formally - role-playing, when both the content and means of communication are regulated, instead of studying the personality, they manage with knowledge of social (official) functions;
- Business communication - the psychological qualities of the individual, character traits, motives, mood are taken into account. However, the interests of the cause are higher, more significant than possible personal differences;
- Spiritual fellowship of friends- they can talk without words, using facial expressions, intonations, using gestures, movements;
- manipulative communication- pursues one goal: to benefit from a partner using various techniques (revenge, intimidation, "splurge", deceit, demonstration of kindness, courtesy, etc.);
- Secular fellowship- its essence is in non-objectivity, i.e. people say not what they think, but what is necessary in any cases.
Communication functions
In psychology, there are many classifications of communication functions.
According to the criterion of the purpose of communication, eight functions are distinguished:
- contact - establishing the state of readiness for receiving and transmitting messages;
- informational - exchange of messages, information, ideas;
- incentive - stimulation of the subscriber's activity;
- coordination– mutual coordination of actions;
- understanding - perception and understanding of the meaning of the message, attitudes, intentions;
- amotivative - excitation in the interlocutor of the necessary emotional experiences;
- establishing relationships- awareness of one's place in the system of role-playing, business, interpersonal relations of the team in which the person operates;
- influence- a change in the state and behavior of the partner, incl. his opinions, intentions, attitudes, needs, etc.
We will consider a generalized version - three functions (they are called parties, aspects) communication:
- Communicative(information exchange);
- Interactive(organization of interaction);
- Perceptual(perception and formation of the image of another person).
The communicative function of communication.
Communication is a process of two-way exchange of information leading to mutual understanding (Communication (lat. communicatio) is an act of communication, a connection between two or more individuals based on mutual understanding; communication of information by one person to another or a number of people.). In their activities, people exchange various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, etc. among themselves. This is the information of human communication, which is not just sent, but also formed, refined, developed.
The communicative side of communication has its own specifics:
- Communication is not just the movement of information. Here we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, and each of them acts as an active subject (their mutual information involves the establishment of joint activities). The significance of information is determined by the fact that it is not only accepted, but also comprehended, understood;
- The exchange of information provides for mutual influence, psychological impact on the partner's behavior in order to change it. At the same time, participants must have a single coding system, i.e. when the signs and their meanings are known;
- There are barriers to communication. On the one hand, there is a lack of a common understanding of the current situation (social aspect), on the other hand, obstacles can be psychological in nature due to personal characteristics (secrecy, distrust, incompatibility, etc.).
Verbal and non-verbal means of communication
(Verbal (Latin verbalis) - verbal, oral.)
Verbal communication- this is oral and written speech, i.e. Language serves as a sign system. Its structure includes:
- Meaning and meaning of words, phrases;
- Speech sound phenomena (voice pitch modulation - smooth, sharp; rhythm - uniform, impetuous; timbre - rolling, hoarse, creaky; tonality - high, low; diction; intonation; speech rate - fast, medium, slow). They are studied by paralinguistics;
- Expressive qualities of the voice - specific sounds - laughter, grunting, crying, whispering, breathing; separating sounds - cough; zero - pauses, nasalizations - "hmm-hmm", "uh", etc. They are studied by extralinguistics.
Forms of oral speech - monologue and dialogue. Many factors influence the effectiveness of communication. Among them: intentions - moods, attitudes, suggesting the active interaction of partners; their involvement in joint activities; the presence of feedback (allows you to reveal the accuracy of perception of the meaning of information); skills and abilities.
Although speech is a universal means of communication, it is supplemented by the use of other sign systems. Scientists believe that in communication words make up 7%, sounds and intonations - 38%, non-speech interaction - 53% (according to other sources, up to 80%).
Non-verbal communication.
- Kinetics - explores the external manifestations of feelings and emotions (based on the general motor skills of various parts of the body) - this is facial expressions, gestures, pantomime;
- Takeshika - studies touching, shaking hands, kissing, touching, stroking, pushing away, etc .;
- Proxemics - considers the norms of the spatial and temporal organization of communication;
- visual communication("eye contact") is an important addition to verbal communication.
Facial expressions - the movement of the muscles of the face, showing the emotional state; it is able to give a true "picture" of what a person is experiencing. Mimic expressions carry 70% of information, i.e. eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth, chin can say more than words (It is believed that a person is trying to hide his information (or lies) if his eyes meet the eyes of a partner for less than 1/3 of the conversation.).
According to its specificity, a look can be:
- Business - is fixed in the area of \u200b\u200bthe forehead of a person;
- Secular - descends to the level of the lips;
- Intimate - directed not to the partner's eyes, but below the face - to other parts of the body up to the chest line;
- Suspicious (critical) - sideways glance.
When communicating, gestures are also important.
Gesture types:
- gestures - assessments (scratching the chin, stretching the index finger along the cheek, standing up and walking around);
- gestures of confidence (connecting fingers to the dome of the pyramid, rocking in a chair);
- gestures of nervousness and uncertainty (pinching of the palm, tapping on the table with fingers);
- self-control gestures (hands behind the back, posture of a person sitting on a chair and clutching the armrests with his hands);
- waiting gestures (rubbing palms, etc.);
- gestures of denial (arms folded or crossed, body tilted back, touching the tip of the nose);
- location gestures (putting hands to the chest, intermittent touching the interlocutor);
- dominance gestures (exposing thumbs for show, sharp swings from top to bottom);
- gestures of insincerity ("covering the mouth with the hand", "touching the nose", turning the body away from the partner, "running glance").
Gestures can be divided into five groups:
- Illustrator Gestures, i.e. messages:
- pointers;
- pictographs (image pictures - "such a figure");
- kinetographs - body movement;
- gestures - "bits" ("go-ahead");
- ideographs (movement of hands, connecting the presented objects together);
- Gestures-regulators- show the attitude of the speaker to something (smile, nod, direction of gaze, hands);
- Gestures-emblems - substitutes for words and phrases (for example, clenched hands at chest level mean - "hello", raised above the head - "goodbye");
- Gestures-adapters - human habits associated with the movement of hands (scratching, twitching some parts of the body; touching and spanking a partner; stroking; sorting out objects that are nearby (button, pen));
- Gestures-affectors- express certain emotions through the movements of the body and muscles of the face.
Pantomime reflects the motor skills of the whole body, posture, posture, gait, and inclinations. These dynamic positions characterize the psychological state of the individual, including the readiness and desirability of communication or aversion to it.
Proxemics - is that time and space carry a semantic load in communication.
There are four zones (distances) in interpersonal contact:
- Intimate (15 cm) - only close, well-known people are allowed into it. Confidence, a quiet voice, touches are characteristic here;
- Personal or personal(45-120 cm) - designed for everyday conversation with friends and colleagues and involves visual contact;
- Social (120-400 cm) - observed during official meetings in the office, as a rule, with those who are not very well known;
- Public (over 400 cm) - involves communication with a large group of people - at a rally, in a lecture hall.
Different relations of people among themselves can be expressed in what place they occupy at the table:
B1 - the angular location is typical for those who are engaged in a casual conversation;
B2 - position of joint activity, partnership, equality;
B3 - competitive defensive line, where the table is a barrier;
B4 - an independent position for those who do not want to interact.
Business conversations are held at a square (official) table, emphasizing subordination. Here, the relationship of cooperation is established by the boss most of all with those who are nearby. Round (informal) - designed for confidential communication, "convenience" of the discussion.
Interactive communication function.
It is connected with the development of a strategy, tactics of interaction between people.
Communication involves changing the behavior and activities of another person. Here it (communication) acts as interpersonal interaction. Its signs:
- Having an external goal(object), the achievement of which is determined by joint efforts;
- Explicitness- availability for observation from outside and registration by other individuals;
- situationality- rather strict regulation by specific conditions of activity, intensity, norms and rules of relations;
- Reflexive polysemy- the dependence of the perception of interaction on the conditions for its implementation and the assessments of the people participating in them.
Joint activity should be accompanied by mutual understanding. Mutual understanding is a form of interaction between individuals who are aware of the content and structure of the partner’s present and possible next action, understand their feelings and moods, and contribute to the achievement of a real goal and a specific result.
Types (kinds) of interaction.
They are usually divided into two opposite groups:
- Positive - cooperation, consent, adaptation, association;
- Negative - competition, conflicts, opposition, dissociation.
Cooperation is the streamlining, coordination of the efforts of the participants, their productive cooperation.
Perceptual function of communication.
It includes the process of forming the image of another person (this is achieved by "reading" his mental properties and behavioral characteristics), determines the perception and understanding of the partner and himself and the establishment of mutual understanding and interaction on this basis.
Mechanism of social perception:
- Identification (identification, likening oneself to another.);
- Reflection (awareness of how a person is perceived by others (understanding by thinking for a partner).);
- Empathy (feeling - one's attitude towards a person is formed).
Interpersonal perception- this is an interaction that has two sides: the evaluation and change of some characteristics of the subjects, due to the fact of their presence. In doing so, they seek to interpret the behavior and the causes of its causes. In conditions of lack of information for interaction, its attribution, "completion" begins. This is called attribution.
Great importance in perception is attached to the installation in communication. Often the formation of the first impression of a person depends on the characteristics given to him.
In the course of interpersonal perception, errors are possible. They are based on various effects:
- The "halo" effect is a kind of "stigma" on the image of an individual, which makes it difficult to see his real behavior. During communication, by attribution, an attitude is formed on a pre-existing idea of \u200b\u200bthis person;
- The effect of "primacy" - occurs when a person is perceived and depends on the order and significance of the information brought about him. The information presented earlier, although they are opposite to the latter, play a decisive role;
- The effect of "novelty" - is that new information is the most effective;
- The effect of "stereotype" - arises due to insufficient experience and information and exists in the form of a stable image. The result is prejudice against people.
In the process of perception, not just the perception of a partner takes place, but emotional relationships arise. The mechanism of their formation is studied by attraction. Attraction is the formation of the attractiveness of one person for others, the mechanism for the development of attachments, friendly feelings, sympathy and love. Methods (methods) of its formation:
- "Proper name"- you need to address by name and patronymic - this is pleasant for the interlocutor, causes positive feelings, makes him be more open, predisposed to a productive conversation;
- The human face is the mirror of the soul- facial expressions are almost uncontrollable, it can be used to judge the actual attitude towards the partner. A friendly expression, a smile indicate good intentions;
- "Golden words" - do not skimp on compliments, praise, approval, which each participant needs;
- "Patient Listener"- the ability to listen to a person, to give him the opportunity to speak out, to contribute in every possible way to this;
- "Knowledge about people" - about marital status, hobbies, individual characteristics, psychological qualities of a person.
The three basic rules of a relationship manager are:
- First– positive relationships of people are affected by interesting activities. It involves its participants in meaningful business and personal contacts, allows you to get to know each other better, to find attractive features. At the same time, poorly delivered work is a cause for discontent, contradictions, conflicts;
- Second- take care of maintaining effective ties, taking this into account when distributing assignments and tasks to performers, not breaking sympathy, existing groups;
- Third- the justice of the leader. If he avoids such mistakes as opposing specialists, excessive praise of some and rude censure of others, thoughtless encouragement of rivalry, then by this he will create favorable social and psychological conditions for bringing people together.
5.2. The art of communication
The ability to communicate competently and productively is the key to success in any person's activity. Life, practice have developed a number of rules, adhering to which, you can prevent missteps in a conversation, look well-mannered, and achieve your goals in a timely manner. What are these rules?
! Be polite!
- Politeness should be instilled from childhood. It is important for every child to know: when entering a room where people are, you need to say hello; it is indecent to interfere in someone else's conversation; do not interrupt the interlocutor until he expresses his point of view. Upon arrival at the teacher's class, all students stand up. This also applies to adults: when a lady or an elderly person enters your office, do not forget to rise and greet them;
- Speech, gesture, facial expressions are of great importance in communication. If a friend can make a request like this: "Pass (those) this book ...", then to the unknown - "Be kind enough to pass me ...". Conversation requires shades and tones. Under no circumstances should you raise your voice, especially to a lady, allow a mental attitude;
- When meeting, they always introduce the younger to the older, the man to the woman;
- When talking with someone, try to stand facing the person, discourteously distract yourself and look around;
- It is not permissible to whisper, to keep secrets in the presence of others;
- Entering the audience (room), it is recommended to linger a little on the threshold in order to orient yourself in the situation, otherwise you can make some kind of mistake;
- Climbing or descending the stairs with the lady, the gentleman should be in front to protect her from all sorts of surprises;
- The door is opened (and then held) by a man and a woman is let through. The same procedure is when boarding a transport, but the gentleman gets out of it first and helps a companion (or a person in need of help);
- In an unfamiliar society, behave evenly, do not emphasize the difference in social status, neither arrogance nor self-humiliation is worthy of respect;
- Follow the gestures. They often testify to nurture more than words and should be sparse. It is not permissible to wave your arms, pat your partner on the shoulder. Excessive grimaces can create a false impression. A friendly smile, a friendly facial expression will bring you a good mood.
! Learn to listen and speak!
And how many expressions of goodbye?
- "Goodbye!"- applicable in any situation;
- "Goodbye!"- separation for a long time;
- "Let me say goodbye!", "Let me bow!"- are used in a formal setting;
- "Well, be healthy!", "Happily!"- common among friends or close acquaintances;
- "Bye!" usually used by young people.
Great importance in the dialogue should be given to tone, which forms emotional comfort. It is also important how we say: loudly - quietly, quickly - slowly. Pay attention to the pace of speech. The rate of speech in different nations:
- Germans have 20-30 words per minute (women have 30-40);
- Italians have 35-40 words per minute (women have 40-50);
- Brazilians have 35-40 words per minute (women have 50-58);
- Arabs have 18-20 words per minute;
- Eskimos have 12-20 words per minute;
- Finns have 10-12 words per minute.
You need to be understood without any difficulty.
If a person talks a lot, he spends energy. After work, teachers, teachers, artists, tour guides, etc. feel tired.
Conquer shyness!
There are many ways (techniques) for this:
- Above all, strive to be a pleasant, likeable person. Greet people first. By the answers, you can judge with whom you should start a conversation. Have a few "light" topics in stock, at the right time it will be very useful to you. Ask the interlocutor questions, interest and talk to him, insert "smart" expressions yourself;
- Your appearance must be confident. While talking, raise your head, straighten your shoulders, look into your partner’s eyes, and then your thoughts will be slender, concise (do not forget to internally repeat such phrases: “I am a smart and interesting person”, “I am a worthy person and others like me”, “I am no worse , and better than many"). You have probably met with such a situation: you want to say something, make a movement, but your tongue and body do not obey, you are thrown into both heat and cold, but you can’t do anything with yourself, and all you have to do is watch how “another "gets acquainted" with your sympathy ", seizes the initiative;
- It is not safe to talk about little-known subjects, facts, events - others can understand them better, and then you can get into an uncomfortable position;
- You can’t touch on the weaknesses (qualities) of a person, don’t speak with irony even about those who are absent - this can damage your reputation;
- Asking a lady's age is not ethical, find out if necessary indirectly;
- It is unacceptable to talk to a specialist about his favorite profession (hobby) disparagingly. Try to listen to him and understand what he is talking about;
- At the first acquaintance, one should not “pour” with jokes, ambiguities, tales, otherwise you may be mistaken for a not entirely serious subject;
- In a conversation, strive to give your voice a soft tone, think carefully about its beginning, which will help overcome stiffness. You can talk with a woman about fashion, cosmetics, health, series, performance, book. If she is "aged", then about today's mores. With a man - about sports, politics, studies, work, etc. It all depends on your imagination and desire to overcome shyness.
! Make friends, get people to like you!
- To be successful, this must be done. Having rendered a service to someone, you will find a person who, in difficult times, may help you;
- Remember how many friends you have? If not, you urgently need new acquaintances. In this case, no complexes, fight with uncertainty, establish useful connections. It is important not only to make acquaintances, but also to be able to maintain them. There can be no trifles here: do not forget to congratulate people on the holiday, ask about their health, wish them success in their activities. However, do not be intrusive, selfish, promiscuous in friendship;
- Show genuine interest in the other person. Strive to understand his virtues, to praise them sincerely;
- Try to figure out why the person does it this way and not otherwise. This is more productive than criticizing (99 times out of 100, criticism is useless, because it makes you look for excuses);
- Always be friendly, welcoming, smiling. Refer to a friend by name and patronymic - this is for him a sign of respect, gratitude, complicity;
- Take into account in communication the actions, interests, tastes of the partner;
- Strive to be a good listener. Show respect for the opinion of the interlocutor, do not say bluntly that he is wrong. This can cause injury to his self-esteem. The main thing is to give him the opportunity to speak. Don't interrupt it, even if you don't agree with it. Let him think that the solution he has found belongs to him;
- Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes. Carefully point out the mistake to him without causing offense. Avoid criticism in front of strangers (colleagues, relatives, children), do not humiliate him. This is not forgiven.
Face, facial expressions, gestures
The face of a person reflects his condition. Emotions leave a noticeable mark on it in the form of wrinkles (they are imprinted in the directions of facial muscles).
Facial expressions and gestures carry up to 50% of information about the interlocutor. Facial expressions are movements of the facial muscles that convey the internal state of the individual. However, we do not always want everyone to know about our true mood. Therefore, one must learn to manage oneself in order to look benevolent in life situations. The best decoration of the face is a radiant, wide, attractive smile. Americans have a morning exercise of saying "cheese" in front of a mirror until the urge to smile is fixed. We don't mind doing that either. A friendly facial expression, an affectionate look help to achieve success.
You can learn a lot about yourself and your interlocutor by the way you laugh:
- Laughing, touch your lips with your little finger - you like to be the center of attention;
- Wrinkle your nose with laughter - you do not adhere to certain views, are unbalanced, easily succumb to momentary whims;
- Laughing, squint your eyes - you are smart, self-confident, persistent in achieving the goal;
- When laughing, hold on to your chin - there are a lot of children in you and sometimes you act recklessly;
- Laughing, touching your face or head - you are a dreamer, a dreamer;
- Throw back your head with laughter - you are gullible, have a broad nature;
- Laughing, close your mouth with your hands - your character is timid, often embarrassed, overly self-critical;
- With a quiet laugh, you bow your head - you are kind, conscience prevails in feelings, you know how to adapt to people;
- Laugh out loud - you have a strong temperament, but you need to learn to control yourself more fully; you know how to speak, but you can't listen;
- There is no certain manner of laughter - you are individual, and you tend to reject the opinions of others in the name of your own.
It has been established that approximately 20% of information is perceived with the help of words, intonation, emotional coloring, and the rest falls on facial expressions and gestures.
The meaning of certain gestures during a meeting (conversation):
- Handshake. The interlocutor, who is aggressive towards you, will give his hand with his palm down. We can conclude that his character is despotism, that he will decide to suppress you with his authority; equal people stretch out their hands with their palms vertically;
- A man of strong character keeps his hands in his pockets and his thumb out; if at the same time he sways back and forth on his heels - he has an explosive temperament; with him it is better to keep restraint, but not to flatter;
- The partner touches any parts of the body with his hands - these are gestures of suspicion or secrecy. If he covers his mouth, it means that he is afraid to tell too much, or masks the hearing. In this case, he needs to be reassured by saying something neutral. If this gesture is a reaction to your words, apparently the interlocutor does not believe you or wants to hide a smile;
- Tightly interlaced fingers indicate nervous tension, disappointment. If a person at the same time convinces you of his sincerity, you should not believe him;
- Hands lie on knees and palms are clenched - the individual is very unsure and worried about something;
- Crossed arms - establishing a barrier. When one hand is lowered, the barrier is, as it were, ajar. You need to communicate with such an acquaintance in a friendly way, smiling;
- Crossed legs - shyness; placed one on top of the other - doubt.
In dealing with foreigners you need to be careful, because many gestures do not mean what you wanted to express with them.
Phone conversations
From a telephone conversation you can learn a lot about a person: origin, education, character, culture, intellect, sociability, social status.
Some rules:
- brevity. It is necessary to take into account the busyness of the interlocutor (hence the expressions: "I'm not distracting you?", "Sorry for the trouble!");
- The telephone is used to resolve urgent matters;
- Business negotiations are usually conducted through official channels. If you have to call your partner at home, you need to apologize, clearly state the essence of the problem, and discuss the directions for its implementation at the next meeting;
- Calling the apartment after 10 pm (and before 9 am) is not recommended;
- If you need to tell strangers something, then say who gave the phone number, give your last name, first name, patronymic;
- When you hear the signal, pick up the phone, introduce yourself: organization, position, last name, first name, patronymic. By doing this, you enable the person to quickly enter the situation;
- In the absence of a subscriber, a third party can be asked: “What should I send him?”;
- Do not start a dialogue with the question: "Who is on the phone?". It's not polite. You need to identify yourself, and then find out who you are dealing with: “Excuse me, but who am I talking to?”;
- It is important to correctly state the purpose of the meeting, to choose the right first words: "I have to turn to you", "You know that ...", "I was instructed to ...". You can clarify whether the partner is free;
- When discussing a problem, speech should be logical, coherent, understandable, sentences simple and clear;
- If the subscriber wants to receive information, but you do not have it at the moment, then it would be right to find out where and when to call him back;
- It happens that during a conversation you are called to the phone. How to proceed? If the conversation with the visitor ends, tell them to wait a bit, and if it is far from over, then ask to call back (or write down the number, do it yourself);
- The dialogue is terminated by the person who called. It is important to say the phrases: “Sorry for the trouble”, “Thank you”, “Goodbye”, etc.;
- A business phone conversation can be completed in 3-4 minutes (introduction - 20-30??, goal communication - 40??, discussion of the problem - 2??, conclusion - 20-30??).
How to build a conversation on the phone?
Before it starts:
- Think about it, is it really necessary?;
- Determine its purpose;
- Have paper, pencil, calendar, reference material handy.
During a conversation:
- After picking up the phone, introduce yourself: institution, surname, name, patronymic;
- Find out if you are talking to the right person?;
- Check if he has time, or is it better to call back?;
- Try to create a positive mood;
- Don't object "straightforward" if you want to succeed;
- Speak calmly (do not shout into the phone), pronounce the words clearly, give your voice a pleasant intonation, smile more often, the partner feels it;
- Listen carefully, do not interrupt the interlocutor, try to “tune in” to his pace;
- Do not "sprinkle" your speech with foreign and technical terms;
- Do not get annoyed if you are not understood, find simple but convincing facts, examples;
- At the end, specify who and what will have to do?
After the conversation ends:
- Analyze its content;
- Check if everything you wanted was told to the partner;
- Write down the result of the conversation, what you yourself need to do, enter it in the weekly
5.3. Business negotiations: methods, skills, features
Business communication is aimed at reaching a substantive agreement. It has its own patterns and features that you need to know and be guided in life. It is important to remember that mutual understanding between people and, above all, bosses and subordinates, does not always work out well.
Psychologists divide administrators into three types of management:
- Authoritarian;
- Democratic;
- Liberal.
liberal type. Allows employees to deal with the tasks themselves, without much control over them. In case of failure, he does a lot himself. Such a boss is good for a team of creative individuals who are used to working without coercion;
Democratic type. He attaches great importance to the team, consults with him, sensitively captures his moods. He listens carefully to people, but makes decisions on his own. Always competently sets tasks and requires specialists to clearly implement them;
The following is a classification (types) of leaders who are difficult to communicate with: bully, fighter, slow, pessimist, introvert, flatterer, know-it-all, etc.:
Bully - constantly "puts pressure" on people, claims to have many influential friends. When communicating with him, do not show fear, do not worry, behave with dignity;
Fighter - loves to shout. Shows unexpected irascibility and irritability, but quickly cools down. Always think about the conversation with him. Your weapon is logic, persuasiveness, argumentation.
Slow - usually friendly, calm. However, fearing to seem incompetent, he does not make independent decisions. In a personal meeting, try to lead him to determine the terms and conditions for completing the task.
A pessimist is unhappy with everything that surrounds him. He is dissatisfied with everything and worries about how not to miss something from under the influence, because. in his opinion, it ends in failure. But when he takes control of as much as possible, he complains that he is overloaded. In communication with him, discuss the worst outcome of the case that you are entrusted with, and emphasize that in this case nothing terrible will happen.
Introvert - focused on problems within himself, afraid of offending anyone. In a conversation with him, give him the initiative, maybe he will be able to stir him up. Your reward will be a clearly defined task and realistic deadlines for its implementation.
Flatterer - constantly joking, friendly. His disadvantage is the inability to criticize subordinates for omissions. He tells them what they want to hear. Try to approve of his behavior, and he will take it as recognition of his importance. And this will help you in communicating with him. Such a boss does not want to have enemies, begins to live in an unreal world. Try to find the truth together, based on facts, not on jokes.
Know-it-all - interrupts a person, does not allow him to speak, does not show interest in the subject of discussion. The inability to listen gives rise to negative moods in him. In case of failure, he blames anyone but himself. Such a manager is afraid of criticism, because he believes that it undermines his competence. Do not fight with him, but on the contrary, ask, expressing appreciation for good advice.
Psychology also identifies behavioral tendencies (types) of subordinates: authority, critic, merry fellow, workhorse, flatterer:
The critic is also an intimate person of the boss and plays the role of "soft opposition". Criticism of the actions of the elder allows the latter to weigh all the pros and cons in making a decision;
Veselchak is an intermediary between the team and the administrator. His humor enables the boss, "without stepping on" his own ambitions, to take note of what is happening, to draw the right conclusions, to better capture the mood of people;
Workhorse - carries out assignments, based on the principle "the boss is always right." He takes on a huge amount of work, devoting all his free time to it. Experiencing more stress, he is very tormented, but he does not know how to refuse;
Flatterer - shows excessive servility to the leader, and they are not favored in the team. They can "pawn" anyone.
Conducting a business meeting (conversation)
- Preparation of a conversation (a plan is drawn up, goals and objectives are formulated; ways to solve them are outlined; arguments are sought to defend one's position; the outcome of the meeting is analyzed);
- Establishing the place and time of the conversation (positions: “above” - “I am waiting for you in my office at 16:00”; “below” - “I would like to consult with you when and where to drive up?”; “on an equal footing” - “ We need to talk, let's agree on the place and time of the meeting");
- It is important to check your readiness for a conversation:
- What is the main goal?;
- Am I sure of a successful outcome of the conversation?;
- Is the partner ready to discuss the problem?;
- What obstacles might be encountered?;
- Consider the impact on the interlocutor;
- The first question should be specific, interesting, but not debatable;
- Strive for brevity in the presentation of thoughts;
- Justify your opinions convincingly.
- Starting a conversation is making contact. Here the gait of the partner, his posture, look, intonation of the first phrases, and the relative position in space are of great importance. Accordingly, the meeting of the guest can occur in different ways: from approaching him to a slight nod or completely ignoring him. And the greeting will be ambiguous - a smile, a handshake, a sitting down or a displeased look.
If the participants are familiar, then you can ask: “How are you?, Mood?” Once you get the answer, "Okay," you can get down to business. If - “Yes, so-so”, then you should ask “What?”, Express sympathy, but do not go into details.
At the beginning of the conversation are unacceptable:- Uncertainty, unnecessary apologies;
- Disrespect for a partner;
- Phrases of "attack" (What kind of disgrace is going on?, i.e. a defensive position is immediately created).
You can use the following methods:
- Relieve stress (say a few nice words, joke);
- Hook (unusual question, comparison, impression, anecdotal case);
- Stimulation of the imagination (problem raising interest);
- Direct approach (directly get down to business).
- To create a favorable climate at a meeting, you need to: address your partner by name and patronymic, convey the idea clearly, understandably, specifically, show respect for his personality, activities, seek advice, behave with dignity (watch out for appearance, posture, facial expression, voice intonation, etc.). It is important to "attach" yourself to the interlocutor.
- Statement of the problem and transfer of information.
You can apply the following recommendations:
- Use the "language" of the partner to minimize communication losses;
- Begin the message passing phrase with "You are the approach", i.e. participants must understand and take into account the interests of the other (instead of: “I came to the conclusion ...” it will probably sound better: “You will be interested to know that ...”);
- The content of the conversation should be brought into line with the level of awareness. You state the essence of the problem, and therefore, you should know it better;
- It is important to move from monologue to dialogue. Make sure that the questions contain the words: “Why? What for? How?";
- Observe the interlocutor's reactions, especially non-verbal ones - facial expressions, gestures and flexibly change your behavior:
- If a person touches the tip of the nose, twists his lips, looks away, then, apparently, the information caused him doubt or even irritation; the interlocutor begins to rub his chin, then this is a signal that he is ready to make some kind of decision. If you have a fear that it will not meet your plans, then it is better to “push back” this moment (give some document to your partner).
- Noticing that the partner “rubs his forehead, the bridge of his nose”, “brings his eyebrows together”, it is better to slow down the pace of speech. The content of the speech must comply with the following rules:- objectivity, reliability, clarity, depth of presentation of the material; (allow truthfully, realistically linking facts and details, avoiding ambiguity and understatement);
- use of visual aids, diagrams, tables, drawings;
- repetition of the main provisions and conclusions (contributes to a better perception and understanding of information);
- a reasonable amount of material (makes it possible to get away from fatigue, boredom, irritation of the interlocutor);
- a certain amount of humor (may be appropriate when you need to express thoughts that are not very pleasant for a partner);
- logicality and purposefulness of speech (will lead to the productivity of the conversation);
- the rhythm of bringing information should be flexible, provide for "ups" and "downs".
- Argumentation. During the meeting, it is necessary to competently defend personal opinions, one's positions, to operate with reliable and convincing concepts, facts, and examples.
- Refutation (neutralization) of the partner's remarks. If the objections of the opponent followed, then:
- Listen carefully to comments;
- Find out whether the rejection of information is really caused by different points of view (or you have not accurately formulated its essence);
- Ask questions in such a way that the interlocutor is faced with a choice between two answers; (“Do you approve our initiative or not?”; If “no”, please specify why?).
- Search for an acceptable solution. This can be done in the form of cooperation, equality, mutual responsibility, or in the authoritarian spirit of one of the partners and the voluntary or forced consent of the other. There should always be one strong argument in reserve in case the interlocutor begins to hesitate at the moment of making a decision (but if you are a phlegmatic person, then it is useless to “put pressure” on him).
- Fixing the agreement, analysis of the results. This is the final act of the meeting. It is useful to record its results in a workbook. Determine the timing and method of informing on the implementation of the planned actions. Thank your partner, congratulate him on the decision reached. Consider a way out of contact: change your posture, stand up, say the phrases “Goodbye”, “All the best”, etc.
- In a calm environment, analyze the progress of the meeting. Pay attention to the mistakes made in order to avoid them in future business conversations. Outline the tactics of further communication with the opponent:
Answer these questions:
- did you consistently lead the main line of the conversation?
- Did you manage to foresee the counter-arguments of the interlocutor?
- Are your comments and objections persuasive?
- were you tactful throughout the meeting?
- Have you been able to get the most out of your business?
- Have you achieved your intended goals? If not, why did this happen?
- How should you build interactions with this person in the future?
It is important to repeat the key points of the conversation, as the interlocutor is probably experiencing some difficulties in understanding.
Features of business negotiations
In business negotiations, there are conflicting (opposite) interests of the parties. This requires from their participants the ability to reach a reasonable agreement, since without this there can be no mutually beneficial cooperation.
Unproductive strategies of behavior are observed in resolving controversial issues.
- Rigid dominance (hard approach) of one side and forced submission of the other or their open confrontation;
- Soft compliance (soft approach), avoidance of confrontation, which leads to a compromise (with mutual consent), or to the victory of the "hard" participant.
Supporters of the "hard" approach see their goal in "victory" at any cost, demand concessions from partners, threaten them, and look for a profitable solution. Participants of the “soft” approach set the task of reaching an “agreement”, admitting losses, and striving to find ways to the negotiation process.
Negotiations aimed at cooperation are most effective. They assume the following:
- Acknowledge the conflict, make it "our problem";
- Respect your opponents, but stand firm in your views;
- Focus on interests, not positions;
- Analyze what is the main thing, find objective barriers, separate them from subjective counteractions;
- Try to develop mutually acceptable options that would reconcile the parties;
- Formulate fair norms and criteria (market prices, expert opinion, laws, etc.);
- Reach an agreement and implement it.
Organization of business meetings
The topic of discussion is planned in advance so that the participants can prepare for it (think over speeches, proposals, find factual material). For such an event, a round table is best suited.
- Leader actions:
- Makes an introduction, notes the importance of the problems under consideration, expresses the hope that the conversation will be constructive;
- Follows the rules, involves all those present in the discussion, raises clarifying questions, makes intermediate comments, makes a final speech;
- Organizes the development and adoption of recommendations (decisions) and their implementation.
- At the meeting, criticism of the personal characteristics of individual participants is not allowed, even if their position is considered unacceptable. It is recommended to follow this rule: first, note the coincidence of points of view, and then discuss the differences in approaches to resolving the issue, arguing the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative (if you are criticized, then translate it to the topic under discussion: “It’s nice that you are concerned about this problem and you're trying to find the best way out..."). It is important to treat your position not as the only possible and correct one, but to be able and accept a different opinion.
- It happens that the meeting comes to an intellectual dead end. Then you need to apply active methods (techniques) in order to get out of this state:
- Circle statement;
- Brainstorm;
- Conciliation commissions or groups are created to reduce the conflict and hostility of the parties.
Everyone puts forward proposals that can be strange, controversial. The main thing is not to “lose” the topic of discussion, to make a detailed analysis, to move forward in resolving the issue.
Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities. It usually distinguishes three sides: communicative (information transfer), interactive (interaction) and perceptual (mutual perception). Considered in the unity of these aspects, communication acts as a way of organizing joint activities and relationships of the subjects included in it.
It is difficult to find such psychic phenomena, characteristic of the individual, which in one way or another were not organically connected with this phenomenon. It is in communication, inextricably linked with activity, that the individual comes into contact, achieves mutual understanding, masters the experience and culture developed by mankind.
Literature on the topic
- Batarshev A.V. Business person personality. M.: 2003
- Bodalev A.A. Personality and communication. M.: 1983
- Granovskaya. Elements of practical psychology. St. Petersburg: 1997
- Leonov A.N. Psychology of communication. Proc. Benefit. M.: 2005
- Leontiev A.A. pedagogical communication. M.: 1997
- Krichanskaya Yu.S., Tretyakov V.P. Grammar of communication. M.: 1990
- Morozov A.V. Business psychology. M.: 2005
- Nemov R.S. Psychology. Textbook. In 3 volumes. M.: 1999
- General psychology / Comp. Rogov E.N. M.: 1998
- Obozov N.N. Interpersonal communication M.: 1997
- Petrovskaya L.A. Competence in communication M.: 1989
- Practical psychology. Textbook / Ed. Tutushkina M.K. St. Petersburg: 1998
- Conducting business meetings and negotiations. Voronezh: 1991
- Psychology. Textbook / Ed. Krylova A.A. M.: 1999
- Psychology. Textbook / Ed. Druzhinina V.N. St. Petersburg: 2000
- Psychology and ethics of business communication M.: 1997
- Rean A.A. etc. Psychology and Pedagogy. St. Petersburg: 2000
- Stolyarenko L.D. Fundamentals of psychology. Rostov n/a:1997
- Timofeev M.I. Business conversation. M.: 2004
General characteristics of communication. If relationships are defined through the concept of "connection", then communication is understood as a process of interaction between a person and a person, carried out with the help of means of speech and non-verbal influence and pursuing the goal of achieving changes in the cognitive, motivational, emotional and behavioral spheres of persons participating in communication. In the course of communication, its participants exchange not only their physical actions or products, the results of labor, but also thoughts, intentions, ideas, experiences, etc.
In everyday life, a person learns to communicate from childhood and masters its different types, depending on the environment in which he lives, on the people with whom he interacts. Moreover, this often happens spontaneously, in the course of the accumulation of everyday experience. In most cases, this experience is not enough, for example, to master special professions (teacher, actor, announcer, investigator), and sometimes just for productive and civilized interaction. For this reason, in the knowledge of its laws, the accumulation of skills and abilities to take into account and use them, it is necessary to constantly improve.
Each community of people has its own means of influence, which are used in various forms of collective life. They concentrate the socio-psychological content of the lifestyle. All this is manifested in customs, traditions, ceremonies, rituals, holidays, dances, songs, legends, myths, in fine, theatrical and musical art, in fiction, cinema, radio and television. These peculiar mass forms of communication have a powerful potential for mutual influence of people. In the history of mankind, they have always served as a means of education, including a person through communication in the spiritual atmosphere of life.
Man as a social being is in the center of influence of the totality of manifestations and forms of communication. However, the passion for only the instrumental side of communication can level the spiritual essence of people and lead to a simplified interpretation of communication as an information and communication activity. In this case, the problem of a person goes into the background and then rarely returns to its proper place or is solved according to unproductive scenarios. On the other hand, a simplified interpretation of communication as an information and communication activity, which is sometimes found in domestic and foreign psychologists, is unacceptable.
Therefore, with the inevitable scientific and analytical division of communication into the communicative sphere and the sphere of development of relationships, it is important not to lose a person in them as a spiritual and active force that transforms oneself and others in this process. That is why communication in its content also appears in the form of the most complex psychological activity of partners.
The structure of communication. Communication is usually manifested in the unity of its five aspects: interpersonal, cognitive, communicative-informational, emotive and behavior.
Interpersonal side communication reflects the interaction of a person with the immediate environment: with other people and those communities with which he is associated with his life. First of all, it is a family and a professional group that use the established cultural, historical and professional patterns of behavior. Along with these patterns of behavior, a person learns national-ethnic, social-age, emotional-aesthetic and other standards and stereotypes of communication.
Cognitive side communication allows you to answer questions about who the interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what can be expected from him, and many others related to the personality of the partner. It covers not only the knowledge of another person, but also self-knowledge. As a result, in the process of communication, images-representations about oneself and partners are formed that regulate this process.
Communication and information side communication is an exchange between people of different representations
niyami, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc. If all this is considered as information, then the process of communication can be understood as a process of information exchange. But this approach to human communication is very simplistic.
Emotive side communication is associated with the functioning of emotions and feelings, moods in personal contacts of partners. They are manifested in the expressive movements of the subjects of communication, their actions, deeds, behavior. Mutual relations appear through them, which become a kind of socio-psychological background of interaction, predetermining the greater or lesser success of joint activities.
Behavioral side communication serves the purpose of reconciling internal and external contradictions in the positions of partners. It provides a controlling influence on a person in all life processes, reveals a person’s desire for certain values, expresses the motivating forces of a person, and regulates the relationship of partners in joint activities.
The psychological structure of communication includes four components.
Motivational-target component is a system of motives and goals of communication. The motives for communication between members can be: a) the needs, interests of one person who takes the initiative in communication; b) the needs and interests of both communication partners that encourage them to engage in communication; c) needs arising from jointly solved tasks. The ratio of communication motives ranges from complete coincidence to conflict. In accordance with this, communication can be friendly or conflicting.
The main goals of communication can be: obtaining or transmitting useful information, activating partners, relieving tension and managing joint actions, providing assistance and influencing other people. The goals of the participants in communication may coincide or contradict, exclude each other. It also depends on the nature of the communication.
Communication component communication in the narrow sense of the word is the exchange of information between communicating individuals. In the course of joint activity, as already noted above, individuals exchange various
other opinions, interests, feelings, etc. All this constitutes the process of information exchange, which has the following features:
If information is only transmitted in cybernetic devices, then in the conditions of human communication it is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, developed;
In contrast to the simple "exchange of information" between two devices in human communication, it is combined with the attitude towards each other;
The nature of the exchange of information between people is determined by the fact that through the system signs used in this case, partners can influence each other, influence the behavior of a partner;
Communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when the person sending the information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a single or similar system of codification or decodification. In everyday speech, this means that people "speak the same language."
interactive component communication consists in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also influences, mutual motivations, actions. Interaction can act in the form of cooperation or competition, agreement or conflict, adaptation or opposition, association or dissociation.
Perceptual Component communication is manifested in the perception of each other by partners in communication, mutual study and evaluation of each other. This is due to the perception of the appearance, actions, actions of a person and their interpretation. Mutual social perception during communication is very subjective, which is also manifested in the not always correct understanding of the goals of the communication partner, his motives, relationships, attitudes towards interaction, etc.
Communication functions. There are six of them:
1) the pragmatic function of communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is realized when people interact in the process of joint activities. At the same time, communication itself very often acts as the most important need;
2) the function of formation and development reflects the ability of communication to influence partners, developing
l perfecting them in every way. Communicating with other people, a person learns universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person. In general, communication can be defined as a universal reality in which mental processes, state and behavior of a person are born, exist and manifest themselves throughout life;
3) the confirmation function gives people the opportunity to know, approve and confirm themselves;
4) the function of uniting and separating people, on the one hand, by establishing contacts between them, contributes to the transfer of necessary information to each other and sets them up for the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby connecting them into a single whole, and on the other hand, it can promote differentiation and isolation of individuals as a result of communication;
5) the function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relations serves the interests of establishing and maintaining sufficiently stable and productive ties, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities;
6) the intrapersonal function of communication is realized in the communication of a person with himself (through internal or external speech, completed according to the type of dialogue). Such communication can be considered as a universal form of human thinking.
Means of communication. Communication is possible only with the help of sign systems. There are verbal means of communication (when oral and written speech are used as sign systems) and non-verbal ones, when non-verbal means of communication are used (Scheme 3).
IN verbal communication two types of speech are usually used: written and oral.
Written speech is the one that is taught at school and is used to be considered a sign of a person's education. Written speech is cumbersome, often contains cliches, clericalism, but this is the price for accuracy, unambiguity of sentences, text. Written speech does not allow for various interpretations of sentences, which is why it is preferred in science, business and legal relations. The benefits of writing
speeches become decisive where accuracy and responsibility for each word are essential. In order to skillfully use written speech, you need to enrich your vocabulary, be demanding of style.
Oral speech, which differs from written in a number of parameters, is not an illiterate version of the latter, but an independent speech, with its own rules and even grammar. The main advantage of oral speech compared to written language is economy, i.e. fewer words are required to convey the same thought in oral speech. Savings are achieved through a different word order, omission of ends and other parts of sentences.
Disadvantages of oral expression of thought - speech errors, ambiguity. For example, the same sentence can be interpreted differently. The advantages of oral speech are manifested where it is necessary to educate, influence, inspire, defend one's honor and dignity in the conditions of lack of time.
In the case when communication is carried out using non-verbal means, hand gestures, gait features, voices, as well as facial expressions (mimicry), eyes (micromimics), posture, movements of the whole body as a whole (pantomime), distance and etc. Moreover, facial expressions sometimes speak better than words about the attitude towards the interlocutor. Everyone knows facial expressions that express devotion, benevolence, flattery, contempt, fear, envy, etc.
Non-verbal means communication is necessary to:
1) regulate the course of the communication process, create psychological contact between partners;
2) enrich the meanings conveyed by words, guide the interpretation of the verbal text;
3) to express emotions and reflect the interpretation of the situation.
Non-verbal means of communication, as a rule, cannot accurately convey meanings on their own (with the exception of some gestures). They usually turn out to be somehow coordinated between themselves and verbal texts. The totality of these means can be compared with a symphony orchestra, and the word - with a soloist against its background. The mismatch of individual non-verbal means significantly complicates interpersonal communication. Unlike speech, non-verbal means
0 communication is not fully understood by both speakers and listeners. No one can fully control all of their non-verbal means.
Non-verbal means of communication are divided into: visual, acoustic, tactile-kinesthetic and olfactory.
1. Visual means of communication:
Kinesics - movement of arms, legs, head, torso; . gaze direction and eye contact;
Eye expression;
Facial expression;
Posture (in particular, localization, change of postures relative to the verbal text);
Skin reactions (redness, sweating);
Distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation to him, personal space);
Auxiliary means of communication, including body features (sex, age) and means of their transformation (clothes, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoos, mustaches, beards, cigarettes, etc.).
2. Acoustic (sound) means of communication:
Paralinguistic, i.e. related to speech (intonation, loudness, timbre, tone, rhythm, pitch, speech pauses and their localization in the text);
Extralinguistic, i.e. not related to speech (laughter, crying, coughing, sighing, gnashing of teeth, sniffing, etc.).
3. Tactile-kinesthetic means of communication:
Physical impact (leading the blind by the hand, contact dance, etc.);
Takeshika (shaking hands, clapping on the shoulder).
4. Olfactory means of communication:
Pleasant and unpleasant environmental odors;
Natural and artificial human odors.
Each specific culture leaves a strong imprint on non-verbal means, therefore there are no general norms for all mankind. The non-verbal language of another country has to be learned in the same way as the verbal one.
Communication mechanism. The universal mechanism for regulating communication as a human activity is a setting that largely determines the strategy of life, penetrating all levels of human functioning and his psyche. Install-
ki of all kinds are rooted in the subconscious and therefore with true. the house lends itself to rational ways of coordinating.
Partners with different attitudes do not understand each other well, cooperate poorly, and quickly go to a radical break. Favorable development of communication contributes to the compatibility of the attitudes of partners.
Coordination and coordination of the positions of partners occur through the exchange of views, thoughts, feelings. This process is subordinated to the goals of adjusting plans for joint activities. In the course of communication, goals, motives and programs of behavior of the individuals included in it are formed. At the same time, mutual stimulation and mutual control of behavior are also carried out.
Lecture 10 Types and types of communication
Communication is extremely versatile and can be of various types.
Distinguish between interpersonal and mass communication. interpersonal communication associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs, constant in the composition of the participants. Mass communication - this is a lot of direct contacts of strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of media.
Allocate also interpersonal And role communication. In the first case, the participants in communication are specific individuals with specific individual qualities that are revealed in the course of communication and the organization of joint actions. In the case of role-playing communication, its participants act as carriers of certain roles (buyer-seller, teacher-student, boss-subordinate).
In role-playing communication, a person loses a certain spontaneity of his behavior, since one or another of his steps, actions are dictated by the role being played. In the process of such communication, a person no longer manifests himself as an individual, but as a certain social unit that performs certain functions.
Communication can be fiduciary And conflict. The first differs in that in its course a particularly significant
information. Confidence is an essential feature of all types of communication, without which it is impossible to negotiate and resolve intimate issues. Conflict communication is characterized by mutual opposition of people, expressions of displeasure and distrust.
Communication can be personal and business. Personal communication - is the exchange of unofficial information, and business- the process of interaction between people performing joint duties or included in the same activity.
Finally, communication can be direct and indirect. direct(immediate) communication - historically the first form of communication between people. On its basis, in the later periods of the development of civilization, various types of mediated communication arose. mediated communication- this is interaction with the help of additional means (letters, audio and video equipment).
Communication can also differ in its forms.
imperative communication - this is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction with a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior, attitudes and thoughts, forcing him to certain actions or decisions. The communication partner in this case acts as a passive party. The ultimate unveiled goal of imperative communication is to coerce a partner. Orders, instructions and demands are used as means of exerting influence.
The following areas of activity are distinguished, where imperative communication is used quite effectively: relations "chief-subordinate", military statutory relations, work in extreme conditions, in emergency circumstances. It is possible to single out those interpersonal relationships where the use of the imperative is inappropriate. These are intimate-personal and marital relations, child-parent contacts, as well as the entire system of pedagogical relations.
Manipulative communication - this is a form of interpersonal interaction in which the influence on the communication partner in order to achieve their intentions is carried out secretly. At the same time, manipulation involves an objective perception of a communication partner, while the hidden is the desire to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. In manipulative communication, the partner
is taken not as an integral unique personality, but as the possessor of certain properties and qualities “necessary” for the manipulator. However, a person who has chosen this type of communication with others as the main one, as a result, often becomes a victim of his own manipulations. He even begins to perceive himself fragmentarily, switching to stegotypic forms of behavior, guided by false capelin and goals, losing the core of his own life (Dotsen-oE.L., 1994).
Manipulation is used by dishonest people in business and other business relationships, as well as in the mass media, when the concept of “black” and hero propaganda is being implemented. At the same time, the possession and use of means of manipulative influence on other people in the de-eco sphere, as a rule, ends for a person with the transfer of such skills to other areas of relationships. Relationships built on the principles of decency, love, friendship and mutual affection are most destroyed by manipulation.
Combined together on the basis of common features, imperative and manipulative forms of communication constitute different types monologue communication, since a person who considers another as an object of his influence, in fact, communicates with himself, not seeing the true interlocutor, ignoring him as a person.
In its turn, dialogic communication this is an equal subject-subject interaction aimed at mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of partners in communication. It allows you to achieve deep mutual understanding, self-disclosure [of partners, creates conditions for mutual development.
Communication difficulties. IN In the process of communication between a person and a person, difficulties can occur, which are often [obstacles to the achievement of the individual's goals and which vary depending on the circumstances. For example, [a person's non-communicativeness may interfere with him in establishing [the first contact upon acquaintance, but at later stages you are perceived as a manifestation of his individuality, not flickering, not interfering with mutual understanding.
On the part of the individual, communication difficulties may arise. connection with communication motives. If a person experiences a need
vehement in self-affirmation, then the absence of a reaction on the part of the other, recognizing his superiority, will irritate and create obstacles in the form of a state of a certain tension that arises between partners. It also depends on their role position. For example, it is known that managers are more oriented towards norms, standards, directives, while subordinates are more oriented towards mutual understanding. The mismatch of these orientations leads to dissatisfaction in communication.
A special group of communication difficulties are violations of strategies previously developed by the participants. For example, a surprise in the form of contact, a discrepancy between the expected behavior and the actual actions of a communication partner can lead to complete confusion. Insufficient orientation in the conditions and content of communication leads to confusion or mental overstrain, as a result of which the interaction of the parties risks ending in conflict.
This group of difficulties is problems of social perception. Perception stereotypes, bias and prejudice, negative attitudes of partners towards each other, mismatch of value orientations at the level of basic social attitudes, semantic layers of consciousness, and the formal subcategories of the image of the other (bad-good, reliable-unreliable, etc.) are essential distort people's perception of each other and cause negative reactions during meetings, conversations, negotiations, arouse distrust and reduce the effectiveness of establishing relationships.
The importance of the ability not only to speak, but also to listen is obvious. Due to the habit of constantly talking, giving instructions to others, as some people often do, the skills of attentive listening, based on interpersonal understanding, may be weakened. For some people, on the contrary, it is difficult to develop speaking skills and it is often difficult for them to "squeeze out the word." These individual differences are one factor in communication difficulties. Currently, various training programs for communication in the development of speaking techniques include not only the development of the technique of constructing and pronouncing a speech statement, but also its adequate support with facial expressions, pantomime, gestures, and gaze.
Teaching communication tactics involves knowing and taking into account the distances determined by the relationship between people. Violation of these distances leads to psychological discomfort communicating. These distances are divided into zones of spaces: intimate, personal, role-playing, social. In different cultures, these zones are somewhat different, which is determined by factors such as age, individual psychological characteristics, belonging to a particular culture, etc., but on average they range from 0-15 cm to 15-46 cm in intimate relationships, from 35-60 to 80-120 - with interpersonal relationships, from 120 to 210 cm with role-playing interactions and in the most extreme cases can reach 3.6 m. Social spaces are spaces for interaction between groups of people, mass communication with audiences. They start at a distance of 3.6 m and represent the public area of the individual. Entering the zone of another person, which does not correspond to the established relationship with him, causes the release of a large amount of adrenaline, reddening of the skin, increased heart rate and other physiological reactions characteristic of stress.
During interrogations, the special services often practice the method of "territorial" invasion in order to break the will of the criminal. But such a tactic of spatial disruption is completely unacceptable in friendly, friendly, comradely relations. It also poses a certain danger in the communication of the boss with his subordinates.
Psychological barriers 1 , i.e. obstacles, barriers in communication, can arise both in connection with the emotional state of the communicating persons, and in connection with the discrepancy between the meanings of statements, requests, orders, etc. In the state of the subject, when barriers arise, intensified negative experiences are observed (for example, the experience of shame, guilt, fear, anxiety, a decrease in self-esteem, etc.).
In general, communication barriers can be divided into aesthetic, moral, and emotional barriers. For example, a person detained in dirty clothes due to an aesthetic problem
Psychological barrier of communication- This is a psychological state experienced as inadequate passivity that prevents communication.
Riera is perceived in advance as a potential offender, although, of course, there may not be any illegal acts behind him.
Barriers in communication are associated with prejudice and unreasonable negative attitudes that arise in some cases on first impression. Negative attitudes can be introduced into a person's experience by one of the people. For shy people, the expectation of misunderstanding or concern about whether communication will be successful becomes a strong obstacle in communication. Age barriers arise in the relations of people of different generations. Sometimes a person himself creates obstacles in communication due to his misconceptions about other people.
Lecture 11 Communication as communication
Features of communication. Communication can take the form of communication. Communication between people has a number of specific features.
Firstly, it must necessarily contain two individuals, each of which is an active subject. At the same time, their mutual informing implies the establishment of joint activities.
The specificity of human information exchange lies in the special role for each participant in the communication of this or that information, its significance. Such significance of information is due to the fact that people do not just “exchange” meanings, but strive to develop a common meaning. This is possible only if the information is not only accepted, but also understood and comprehended. For this reason, each communicative process is a unity of activity, communication and cognition.
Secondly, there must be the possibility of mutual influence of partners on each other through a system of signs. In other words, the exchange of information in this case involves the impact on the behavior of the partner and the change in the state of the participants in the communication process.
Thirdly, influence in communication can only be exercised if there is a single or similar system of codification
and decodification by the communicator (the person sending the information) and the recipient (the person receiving it).
Fourth, communication barriers are always possible. In this case, the connection that exists between communication and attitude clearly stands out.
The dissemination of information in society passes through a kind of "filter of trust-distrust". Such a filter operates in such a way that true information may not be accepted, and false information may be accepted. In addition, there are tools that facilitate the acceptance of information and weaken the effect of filters. The totality of these resources is called fascination. An example of fascination can be musical, spatial or color accompaniment of speech.
Information as such can be of two types: incentive and ascertaining. Incentive Information manifests itself in the form of an order, advice or request. It is meant to stimulate some kind of action. Stimulation, in turn, is divided into activation (incitement to action in a given direction), interdiction (prohibition of unwanted activities) and destabilization (mismatch or violation of some autonomous forms of behavior or activity). Ascertaining information manifests itself in the form of a message and does not imply a direct change in behavior.
Structure of communication. The communication process model usually includes five elements: communicator-message (text)-channel-audience-feedback.
There are three positions of the communicator during the communication process: open(when the communicator does not hide that he is a supporter of the stated point of view, evaluates various facts in support of it); suspended(when the communicator is emphatically neutral, compares contradictory points of view, not excluding orientation towards one of them, but not declared openly); closed(when the communicator is silent about his point of view, sometimes he even resorts to special measures to hide it).
In the process of communication are carried out: the mutual influence of people on each other, as well as the exchange of various ideas, interests, moods, feelings. To describe the process
mutual influence, it is not enough to know only the structure of the communicative act. It is also necessary to analyze the motives of those who communicate, their goals, attitudes, etc.
Due attention should also be given to communication skills such as non-reflective and reflective listening. Non-reflective listening or attentive silence - is used at the stages of posing a problem, when it is only being formed by the speaker, and also when the goal of communication on the part of the speaker is to “pour out the soul”, to discharge emotionally.
Reflective listening used in situations where the speaker needs not so much emotional support as help in solving certain problems. In this case, feedback is given to listeners in speech form through the following techniques: asking open and closed questions on the topic of conversation, paraphrasing the words of the interlocutor, allowing you to express the same thought in other words (paraphrase), summarizing and presenting intermediate conclusions in the course of the conversation.
The specificity of interpersonal communication is also revealed in a number of processes and phenomena: psychological feedback, the presence of communication barriers.
The main goal of information exchange in communication is the development of a common meaning, a common point of view and agreement on various situations or problems. It has a feedback mechanism. The content of this mechanism lies in the fact that in interpersonal communication the process of information exchange doubles, as it were, and, in addition to the content aspects, the information coming from the recipient to the communicator contains information about how the recipient perceives and evaluates the behavior of the communicator. Distinguish between direct and indirect feedback. Indirect feedback is a veiled form of transferring psychological information to a partner. During it, various rhetorical questions, ridicule, ironic remarks, emotional reactions unexpected for the partner are usually used. In this case, the communicator himself must guess what exactly the communication partner wanted to tell him, what his reaction and his attitude towards the communicator really are.
In the process of transmitting information, people perceive not only the content of verbal and non-verbal information, but also the way in which it is transmitted, i.e. a style of communication indicating how the meaning of the message is to be truly interpreted and understood.
communication styles. Usually there are ten main communication styles, which are ways of interacting with other people in the process of communication:
1) dominant (a strategy aimed at reducing the role of others in communication);
2) dramatic (exaggeration and emotional coloring of the content of the message);
3) controversial (aggressive or proving);
4) soothing (relaxing strategy aimed at reducing the anxiety of the interlocutor);
5) impressive (a strategy aimed at making an impression);
6) accurate (aimed at the accuracy and accuracy of the message);
7) attentive (expressing interest in what others say);
8) inspired (frequent use of non-verbal behavior - eye contact, gesticulation, body movement, etc.);
9) friendly (tendency to encourage others and interest in their contribution to communication);
10) open (the tendency to express one's opinion, feelings, emotions, personal aspects of one's "I").
In the process of communication, the participants in communication are faced with the task of not only exchanging information, but also achieving its adequate understanding by partners. That is, in interpersonal communication, the interpretation of the message coming from the communicator to the recipient stands out as a special problem. Firstly, the form and content of the message significantly depend on the personal characteristics of the communicator himself, his ideas about the recipient and his attitude towards him, as well as on the whole situation in which communication takes place. Secondly, the message sent by him does not remain unchanged - it is transformed, changed under the influence of the individual psychological characteristics of the recipient's personality, as well as the attitude of the latter to the author, the text itself and the situation of communication.
Communication barriers.Communication barrier- this is a psychological obstacle to the adequate transfer of information between communication partners. There may be barriers to communication. We can talk about the existence of barriers of understanding, barriers of socio-cultural differences and barriers of attitude.
Finally, we can talk about the existence of a logical barrier of misunderstanding. It arises in those cases when the logic of reasoning offered by the communicator is either too complicated for the perception of the recipient, or seems to him incorrect, or contradicts his inherent manner of proof. One can talk about the existence of "female" and "male" psychological logic, about "children's logic", etc.
The cause of misunderstanding may be barriers of socio-cultural difference. These are social, political, religious and professional differences that lead to different interpretations of certain concepts used in the communication process. The very perception of a communication partner as a person of a certain profession, a certain nationality, gender and age can also act as a barrier. For example, the credibility of the communicator in the eyes of the recipient is of great importance for reducing the barrier. The higher the authority, the fewer barriers to the assimilation of the information offered.
Relationship barriers - this is already a purely psychological phenomenon that arises in the process of communication between the communicator and the recipient. We are talking about the emergence of a feeling of dislike of distrust towards one's communicator, which also extends to the information transmitted by him.
Any information coming to the recipient carries this or that element of influence on his behavior, me. attitudes, attitudes and desires in order to partially or completely change them. In this sense, a communicative barrier is a form of psychological protection against extraneous psychological influence carried out in the process of information exchange between participants.
Review questions
1. What is communication?
2. What types and means of communication do you know?
3. What is communication?
4. What can you tell us about communication barriers?
RUSSIAN STATE SOCIAL UNIVERSITY
Branch in Minsk
Course work
INSTALLATIONS IN COMMUNICATION AND CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE SPEECH PERCEPTION IN ADOLESCENTS
Specialty "Psychology"
Correspondence department, 3 course
Lokteva O.V.
Scientific adviser:
teacher
__________________________
Minsk, 2009
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK
CHAPTER 1. THE PROBLEM OF COMMUNICATION IN FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC LITERATURE
1.1. Essence of communication
1.1.1 Theoretical approaches to the study of communication
1.1.2 Structure and types of communication
1.1.3 Forms and levels of communication
1.1.4 Phases of communication
1.1.5 Functions and means of communication
1.2. Classification of communicative acts
1.3. Attitudes in communication
1.4. Conditions for the effectiveness of speech perception
Chapter 2
2.1. Organization of the study
2.2. Research methods and techniques
2.3. Analysis and interpretation of results
CONCLUSION
LIST OF USED SOURCES
APPENDIX
INTRODUCTION
Communication between people is the most important sign of human existence. Without it, activity, the formation and assimilation of spiritual values, the formation and development of the personality are impossible. Communication accompanies all these processes, contributes to their implementation. Communication is multifaceted, primarily because it is implemented at different levels: countries and peoples, parties, collectives and individuals can communicate, and, accordingly, the interaction between the parties in this process will be different in its social significance. In addition, communication can manifest itself in different ways: be direct or indirect, differ in types, and, finally, in the process of it, people can exchange thoughts, feelings, experience, work skills, etc. .
There are people who are not very talkative. They may listen to you with attention, but at the same time you will not see it. It seems to you that they simply do not want to listen to you, but in fact your interlocutor has such a habit and for him this is the norm of communication. Often this is the behavior of people who either have a respected position in society, or are tall and large. Often, when talking with such people, we feel uncomfortable, embarrassed, and sometimes we stop, because. it seems to us that we are not being listened to very carefully or simply ignored. This is often facilitated by our own setting before the conversation. If someone told us something that does not honor the interlocutor, before the conversation, then we have alienation, and, moreover, not always legitimate.
In this course work, we will try to reveal the main types of attitudes in communication, and also try to determine the conditions for effective listening.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK
Relevance of the research topic. The processes of communication began to be studied most actively in the second half of the 20th century. So, in the 1950s-1960s, the methods of formalizing a message, its encoding and decoding, and the transmission of information from an addresser to an addressee were of the greatest scientific interest. These studies were carried out within the then new sciences: cybernetics and informatics. Communication in them was considered as a one-way information process, in which the greatest attention was paid to the ways of formalizing the message, and most of the definitions of communication were reduced to the idea of transferring information from the author to the addressee.
The style of communication (verbal and non-verbal), the behavior of the manager, the interaction of employees in the process of work, the writing of official documents and other aspects can both improve the work of the enterprise and cause significant harm to it.
The goal is to determine attitudes in communication, as well as to understand the conditions for effective speech perception.
The work tasks include:
To analyze the theoretical literature on the problem of communication and effective speech perception in adolescents;
To study the psychological characteristics of attitudes in communication, and the effective perception of speech in adolescents;
To explore attitudes in communication that contribute to the effective perception of adolescent speech;
To conclude;
The object of the study is adolescents aged 16-18.
The subject of the study is the analysis of attitudes in communication and the conditions for the effective perception of adolescent speech.
Research hypothesis: there is a relationship between attitudes in communication and the ability to listen.
Methods and methodology of research: The methods of theoretical analysis, methods of psychological diagnostics were used in the research: ; . Method of statistical data processing Mann-Whitney U-criterion.
The theoretical basis of the study was the works of foreign and domestic scientists: B.G. Ananyeva, T.G. Grushevitskaya, V. Siegert, V.B. Kashina, I.S. Kona, A.A. Leontiev, T. Peters, R. Waterman and others.
Experimental base of the study: 46 adolescents, students of the 11th grade of secondary school No. 33 in Minsk.
Scientific novelty of the research:
1. Theoretical prerequisites for the psychological support of the development of communicative qualities of adolescents have been identified and systematized.
3. The specificity of the development of communicative qualities in adolescence is determined.
The practical significance lies in the fact that the data obtained can be used by psychologists and teachers when working with adolescents, including in the process of psychological counseling.
The course work consists of an introduction, which describes a brief description of the problem of communication and communication skills of adolescents. The general characteristics of the work, in which the relevance of the research topic is substantiated, its methodological and theoretical foundations are determined, goals and objectives are indicated, a hypothesis is formulated, the object and subject of research are determined, and the practical significance of the work is revealed. Course work consists of two chapters: theoretical and practical; as well as a conclusion and a list of sources used. Course work consists of 56 pages. When writing the term paper, 31 main sources were used.
CHAPTER 1.THE PROBLEM OF COMMUNICATION IN FOREIGN ANDDOMESTICLITERATURE
1.1. Essence of communication
Interpersonal communication is a necessary condition for the existence of people, without which it is impossible to fully form not only individual mental functions, processes and properties of a person, but also the personality as a whole. That is why the study of this most complex mental phenomenon as a systemic entity with a multi-level structure and only its inherent characteristics is relevant for psychological science.
The essence of interpersonal communication lies in the interaction of a person with a person. This is what distinguishes it from other types of activity when a person interacts with an object or thing.
Individuals interacting with all this satisfy their need to communicate with each other, to exchange information, etc. For example, two passers-by discuss a conflict situation that they have just witnessed, or communication when young people get to know each other.
In the overwhelming majority of cases, interpersonal communication almost always turns out to be woven into one or another activity and acts as a condition for its implementation.
Interpersonal communication is not only a necessary component of people's activities, the implementation of which involves their cooperation, but also a prerequisite for the normal functioning of their communities (for example, a school class or a production team of workers). When comparing the nature of interpersonal communication in these associations, both the similarity and the difference between them attract attention.
The similarity lies in the fact that communication in them is a necessary condition for being, these associations, a factor on which the success of solving the tasks facing them depends.
Communication is influenced not only by the main activity for a given community, but also by what this community itself is. For example, if this is a school class, then it is important to know how well it is formed as a team, what evaluation standards prevail in it, if it is a team, then what is the degree of development of labor activity, the level of production qualification of each employee, etc.
The features of interpersonal interaction in any community are largely determined by how its members perceive and understand each other, what emotional response they mainly evoke in each other, and what style of behavior they choose.
The communities to which a person belongs form the standards of communication, set patterns of behavior that a person learns to follow on a daily basis when interacting with other people. These communities directly affect the development of his assessments, which determine his perception of other people, relationships and style of communication with them. Moreover, the impact is stronger, the more authoritative the community is in the eyes of a person.
Interacting with other people, a person can simultaneously act as both a subject and an object of communication. As a subject, he recognizes his partner, determines his attitude towards him (it can be interest, indifference or hostility), influences him in order to solve a specific problem. In turn, he himself is an object of knowledge for the one with whom he communicates. The partner addresses his feelings to him and tries to influence him. At the same time, it should be emphasized that the presence of a person simultaneously in two "hypostases" - an object and a subject - is characteristic of any type of direct communication between people, whether it is communication between one student with another or between a student and a teacher.
Communication, being one of the main types of human activity, not only constantly reveals the essential characteristics of the individual as an object and subject of communication, but also affects the entire course of its further formation, primarily on such blocks of properties that express a person’s attitude to other people and to yourself. In turn, the changes that occur in people under the pressure of unfolding communication affect, to one degree or another, such basic personality traits, in which its attitude to various social institutions and communities of people, nature, public and personal property, and labor is manifested.
1.1.1 Theoretical approaches to the study of communication
There are various theoretical models of social communication. Within the framework of the psychoanalytic model, based on the theoretical teachings of Z. Freud and C. Jung, communication is understood as the repression by the individual of his unconscious drives.
The existentialist model sees communication as being "abandoned into the world". This understanding of communication is explained by the development in the twentieth century. such a system of morals as individualism. Relationships that develop under conditions of individualism organize a person's life on the principles of isolation and self-isolation, which gives rise to such a cultural phenomenon as lack of communication skills. Lack of communication is the disintegration of all social ties, an extreme form of mutual alienation. As a result, individuals have a feeling of loneliness, a sense of the meaninglessness of a short and useless existence of a person in the world. Philosophers have called this situation a “crisis of communication”.
In the context of behaviorism (the science of behavior), the basis of communication is not language as a system, but direct speech signals, by manipulating which one can educate a person of any warehouse.
The same understanding of communication can be seen in the semantic model of Y. Lotman and W. Eco. In the game model of communication, the main representatives of which are E. Bern and J. Huizinga, communication is a game. Personalism considers communication as an internal metaphysical ability of a person to discover the feelings of another in himself (relationships I - Other). In the understanding model of communication, the main representatives of which are M. Weber, G. Gadamer, G. Shpet, the main result of communication is the understanding of another person by a person, the so-called mutual understanding.
The futurological approach to communication is most vividly represented by the theory of the information society (D. Bell, A. Toffler, G. McLuhan). In this theory, the means of communication are considered as the only stimulus and source of social development. Information here is the basis of culture and all cultural values.
Thus, the movement of knowledge, emotional experiences, volitional influences in social time and space are understood as social communication. Examples of such communication can be a friendly conversation, a school lesson, a theatrical performance, business communication, a TV show, and a computer search for information.
Communication activity is carried out in society in three forms:
1) communication - a dialogue of equal partners; 2) control - purposeful influence of the communicator on the recipient of information; 3) imitation - borrowing patterns of behavior, communication styles, lifestyles of some members of society by others. Thanks to imitation, language, traditions, knowledge and skills are passed from generation to generation.
There are two types of communication: synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic (horizontal) communication is realized through oral and written communication channels between contemporaries. Thanks to such communication, unity, cohesion, and consolidation of society are ensured. Synchronous communication is necessary for solving current social problems, coordinating the actions of different social groups, for the life of an ethnic group in the present.
In diachronic (vertical) communication, information of spiritual content is transmitted from generation to generation. Thus, social memory is formed. Diachronic communication, therefore, preserves the ethnic community, the movement of language, traditions.
Communication is closely related to information. The transfer of information can be carried out in three communicative forms: 1) monologue, where such communicative actions predominate as a unidirectional transfer of information from the organizer of communication to the recipient of information; 2) dialogical, in which the subjects of communication interact and are mutually active. In this form of communication, information is exchanged. In dialogic communication, it becomes important to develop agreed decisions; 3) polylogical - the organization of multilateral communication. Such communication is in the nature of a struggle for the mastery of a communicative initiative and is associated with its most effective implementation.
If the goals of communication are the exchange of information of predominantly emotional content, then the goals of communication are: the exchange and transmission of information; formation of skills and abilities, development of professional qualities; formation of attitude towards oneself, towards other people, towards society as a whole; exchange of activities, innovative methods, means, technologies; change in value attitudes and motivation of behavior; exchange of emotions.
Depending on the purpose of the message, five models of communication are distinguished in the scientific literature: cognitive, persuasive, expressive, suggestive, ritual. Each of these models has its own goals and expected results, organization conditions, communication forms and means.
1.1.2 Structureand types of communication
In the structure of communication, there are:
1) the communicative side;
2) interactive side;
3) the perceptual side.
The communicative side of communication is expressed in the exchange of information between people.
Features of the process of information exchange in the process of human communication:
1) there is not only the transfer of information, but also its formation, clarification and development;
2) the exchange of information is combined with the attitude of people towards each other;
3) there is a mutual influence and influence of people on each other;
4) the communicative influence of people on each other is possible only if the codification systems of the communicator (sender) and the recipient (receiver) coincide;
5) the emergence of specific communication barriers of a social and psychological nature is possible. Structural components of communication as a communicative
activities:
1) the subject of communication is a communicator;
2) the object of communication is the recipient;
3) the subject of communication -- the content of the information sent;
4) actions of communication - units of communicative activity;
5) means of communication - operations with the help of which actions of communication are carried out;
6) the product of communication is the formation of a material and spiritual nature as a result of communication.
The interactive side of communication is manifested in the interaction of people with each other, i.e. exchange of information, motives, actions. The purpose of interaction is to meet their needs, interests, the implementation of goals, plans, intentions. Types of interaction:
1) positive - interactions aimed at organizing joint activities: cooperation; agreement; fixture; association;
2) negative - interactions aimed at disrupting joint activities, creating obstacles for it: competition; conflict; opposition; dissociation. Factors affecting the type of interaction:
1) the degree of unity of approaches to problem solving;
2) understanding of duties and rights;
3) ways to solve emerging problems, etc.
The perceptual side of communication is expressed in the process of perception, study and evaluation by partners of each other.
Structural elements of social perception:
1) the subject of interpersonal perception - the one who perceives (studies) in the process of communication;
2) the object of perception - the one who is perceived (know) in the process of communication;
3) the process of cognition - includes cognition, feedback, elements of communication.
In the process of communication, a person acts in two forms at once: as an object and as a subject of knowledge.
Factors affecting the process of interpersonal perception:
1) features of the subject: gender differences (women more accurately identify emotional states, strengths and weaknesses of the personality, men - the level of intelligence); age, temperament (extroverts perceive more accurately, introverts evaluate); social intelligence (the higher the level of social and general knowledge, the more accurate the assessment in perception); mental condition; health status; installations - the previous assessment of objects of perception; value orientations; the level of socio-psychological competence, etc.
2) features of the object: physical appearance (anthropological - height, physique, skin color, etc., physiological - breathing, blood circulation, functional - posture, posture and gait, and paralinguistic - facial expressions, gestures and body movements); social appearance: social role, appearance, proxemic features of communication (distance and location of those communicating), speech and extralinguistic characteristics (semantics, grammar and phonetics), activity features;
3) the relationship between the subject and the object of perception;
4) the situation in which perception occurs.
Types of communication
Types of communication by means:
1) verbal communication - is carried out through speech and is the prerogative of a person. It provides a person with wide communicative opportunities and is much richer than all types and forms of non-verbal communication, although in life it cannot completely replace it;
2) non-verbal communication occurs with the help of facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, through direct sensory or bodily contacts (tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person). Non-verbal forms and means of communication are inherent not only to humans, but also to some animals (dogs, monkeys and dolphins). In most cases, non-verbal forms and means of human communication are innate. They allow people to interact with each other, achieving mutual understanding on the emotional and behavioral levels. The most important non-verbal component of the communication process is the ability to listen.
Types of communication by goals:
1) biological communication is associated with the satisfaction of basic organic needs and is necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the organism;
2) social communication is aimed at expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth of the individual. Types of communication by content:
1) material - the exchange of objects and products of activity that serve as a means of satisfying their actual needs;
2) cognitive - the transfer of information that broadens one's horizons, improves and develops abilities;
3) conditioning - the exchange of mental or physiological states, influencing each other, designed to bring a person into a certain physical or mental state;
4) activity - exchange of actions, operations, skills;
5) motivational communication consists in the transfer to each other of certain motives, attitudes or readiness for action in a certain direction.
By mediation:
1) direct communication - occurs with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc .;
2) mediated communication - associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and exchanging information (natural (stick, thrown stone, footprint on the ground, etc.) or cultural objects (sign systems, writing symbols on various media, printing , radio, television, etc.));
3) direct communication is built on the basis of personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people in the act of communication itself (for example, bodily contacts, conversations of people, etc.);
4) indirect communication occurs through intermediaries, which may be other people (for example, negotiations between conflicting parties at the interstate, international, group, family levels). Other types of communication:
1) business communication - communication, the purpose of which is to achieve any clear agreement or agreement;
2) educational communication - involves the targeted impact of one participant on another with a fairly clear idea of the desired result;
3) diagnostic communication - communication, the purpose of which is to formulate a certain idea about the interlocutor or receive any information from him (such is the communication of a doctor with a patient, etc.);
4) intimate-personal communication - it is possible when partners are interested in establishing and maintaining trusting and deep contact, it occurs between close people and is largely the result of previous relationships.
1.1.3 Forms and levels of communication
Communication between people occurs in various forms, which depend on the level of communication, its nature, purpose. The most typical forms of interpersonal communication are anonymous, functional and role-playing, in which official relations, informal and intimate family communication occupy a special place. This classification is, of course, conditional. It does not exhaust all possible forms of communication in which a person can participate.
Consider the main forms in more detail.
Anonymous communication is an interaction between unfamiliar or unrelated people. It is understood as any temporary connections between people in which they act as citizens, residents of a city or town, passengers of a train, plane or public transport, spectators of a cinema or a sports match, visitors to a museum or exhibition, etc. This refers to their preliminary and, as a rule, subsequent unfamiliarity. They meet, enter into a relationship with each other and diverge. They are anonymous, nameless in relation to each other.
Formal-role communication involves a different duration of communication between people who have certain roles. The participants in such communication perform certain functions in relation to each other: the buyer - the seller, the passenger - the conductor, the waiter - the client, the doctor - the patient, etc. Service relations also have a functional-role character, but they are characterized by a significant duration, they, as a rule, are of great importance in people's lives. Their participants know each other to a greater or lesser extent, at least as workers, members of the same team.
Informal communication is all kinds of personal contacts outside the official relations of colleagues, members of any organizations. Of course, informal communication is also possible with workmates, but only if it goes beyond the scope of official relations. Examples can be non-official contacts with workmates, acquaintances, meetings with friends, comrades in sports and other hobbies, etc. A special area of informal communication is communication between close people or family members.
Forms of communication:
1) monologue - when only one of the partners is assigned the role of an active participant, and the other is a passive performer (for example, a lecture, notation, etc.);
2) dialogue - characterized by the cooperation of participants - interlocutors or communication partners (for example, conversation, conversation);
3) polylogical - multilateral communication, which is in the nature of a struggle for a communicative initiative.
Communication levels
In foreign and domestic psychology there are different views on the levels of communication. Levels of communication according to B.G. Ananiev:
1) micro-level - consists of the smallest elements of interpersonal communication with the immediate environment with which a person lives and most often comes into contact (family, friends);
2) meso-level - communication at the level of the school, production team, etc.;
3) macro level - includes such large structures as management and trade.
Levels of communication according to E. Bern:
1) rituals are a certain order of actions by which a custom is performed and fixed;
2) pastime (watching TV, reading books, dancing, etc.);
3) games - activities that do not result in the production of any product;
4) intimacy - intimate relationships;
5) activity - a specific type of human activity aimed at understanding and transforming the world around.
The most common in Russian psychology is the following level system:
1) primitive level - involves the implementation of a communication scheme in which the interlocutor is not a partner, but a necessary or interfering object. In this case, the contact phases are performed in the extension from above or (with a frankly strong partner) from below. A similar level of communication is offered in a state of intoxication, anger, a state of conflict, etc.;
2) manipulative level - the "partner - rival" scheme is implemented in the game, which must be won without fail, and winning is a benefit (material, everyday or psychological). At the same time, the manipulator catches and tries to use the partner's weaknesses;
3) standardized level - communication based on standards, when one of the partners (or both) does not want contact, but one cannot do without it;
4) conventional level - the level of ordinary equal human communication within the framework of accepted rules of conduct. This level requires partners to have a high culture of communication, which can be regarded as an art and to master which another person has to work on himself for years. It is optimal for resolving personal and interpersonal problems in human contacts;
5) game level - characterized in the same way as conventional, but with an increased positive focus on the partner, interest in him and the desire to generate a similar interest in himself from the partner. The main thing in the game is to intrigue, interest the partner. At this level, the resulting human connection is more valued than the informative component of communication. Ideal for teaching activities;
6) the level of business communication - in comparison with the conventional level, it implies an increased focus on the partner as a participant in collective activities. The main thing at this level is the degree of mental and business activity of the partner, his involvement in the common task. Ideal for group activities, brainstorming, etc.;
7) spiritual level - the highest level of human communication, which is characterized by mutual dissolution in a partner, high spontaneity of thought and feeling, ultimate freedom of self-expression; the partner is perceived as the bearer of the spiritual principle, and this principle awakens in us a feeling that is akin to reverence.
1.1.4 Phases of communication
Of all the phases of communication, the most important phase of preparation, if it turns out to be possible. Communication needs to be planned, to choose the right place and time, to determine for oneself attitudes towards the results of communication. The first phase of communication is making contact. Self-adjustment is important here, it is important to feel the state, the partner’s adjustment, to get used to it yourself. It is important to position the partner towards you and ensure a smooth start. This period ends with the establishment of psychological contact.
Next comes the phase of focusing on something, some problem, the task of the parties and the development of topics, then - motivational probing. Its purpose is to understand the motives of the interlocutor and his interests. Then follows the phase of argumentation and persuasion, if there are differences of opinion. And finally, the phase of fixing the result. This is always a critical moment in a relationship. As opposed to a break, the end of a relationship is the end of contact. And a mistake in this phase can sometimes completely change the result of many hours of conversation. It is always necessary to complete the communication so that there is a prospect of continuation.
1. 1.5 Functions and means of communication
Communication functions are the roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of human social life:
1) the information and communication function consists in the exchange of information between individuals. The constituent elements of communication are: the communicator (transmits information), the content of the message, the recipient (receives the message). The effectiveness of information transfer is manifested in the understanding of information, its acceptance or rejection, assimilation. To implement the information and communication function, it is necessary to have a single or similar system for codifying/decodifying messages. The transfer of any information is possible through various sign systems;
2) incentive function - stimulation of the activity of partners for the organization of joint actions;
3) integrative function - the function of bringing people together;
4) the function of socialization - communication contributes to the development of skills for human interaction in society according to the norms and rules adopted in it;
5) coordination function - coordination of actions in the implementation of joint activities;
6) the function of understanding - adequate perception and understanding of information;
7) the regulatory-communicative (interactive) function of communication is aimed at regulating and correcting behavior in the direct organization of joint activities of people in the process of their interaction;
8) the affective-communicative function of communication consists in influencing the emotional sphere of a person, which can be purposeful or involuntary. Means of communication -- ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication. They are verbal and non-verbal. Verbal means of communication are words with meanings assigned to them. Words can be spoken aloud (oral speech), written (written speech), replaced by gestures in the blind, or spoken silently. Oral speech is a simpler and more economical form of verbal means. It is divided into:
1) dialogic speech, in which two interlocutors take part;
2) monologue speech - a speech delivered by one person.
Written speech is used when oral communication is impossible or when accuracy is necessary, the accuracy of each word.
Non-verbal means of communication are a sign system that complements and enhances verbal communication, and sometimes even replaces it. With the help of non-verbal means of communication, about 55-65% of information is transmitted. Non-verbal means of communication include:
1) visual aids:
a) kinesthetic means are visually perceived movements of another person that perform an expressive-regulatory function in communication. Kinesics includes expressive movements, manifested in facial expressions, posture, gesture, gaze, gait;
b) gaze direction and eye contact;
c) facial expression;
d) eye expression;
e) posture - the location of the body in space ("leg on foot", crossed arms, legs, etc.);
f) distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation to him, personal space);
g) skin reactions (redness, perspiration);
h) auxiliary means of communication (body features (sex, age)) and means of their transformation (clothes, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoos, mustaches, beards, cigarettes, etc.);
2) acoustic (sound):
a) related to speech (loudness, timbre, intonation, tone, pitch, rhythm, speech pauses and their localization in the text); 6) not related to speech (laughter, gnashing of teeth, crying, coughing, sighing, etc.);
3) tactile - related to touch:
a) physical impact (leading the blind by the hand, etc.);
b) takevika (shaking hands, clapping on the shoulder).
1.2. Classification communicativex acts
If we consider the communicative acts themselves according to their types and types, then, depending on the different classification criteria, we would get different varieties: by content: production, practical-everyday, interpersonal-family, scientific-theoretical; according to the form of contact: direct, indirect. Let's say that correspondence is an indirect form of contacting communicants, and a personal conversation is a direct form of contacting; by type of communication: bidirectional and unidirectional. For example, reading a book, or watching a movie, or playing the role of a spectator at a performance is a unidirectional communicative act. But if you applaud the actors, or write a letter to the author of a play, a book, or a film director, or reward singers with applause, the connections become bidirectional, mutual; according to the degree of mutual correspondence of communicants: high, satisfactory, insignificant, unsatisfactory, negative. With an unsatisfactory degree of mutual correspondence (in such cases, both communicative incompatibility and even complete psychological incompatibility), it is appropriate to state: "they speak different languages." Although, with all this, they do not mean at all different national languages, but, for example, completely incompatible passions, interests, manners of speaking and communicating in general; according to the results: from negative (“he completely misunderstood me, perverted my thought”) through zero (“we can’t understand each other in any way”) to positive (“he understands me, and I understand him”). The scale of negative and positive results is quite stretched: we can understand someone in such a way that he will be delighted, or we can simply cause a nod of approval. Misunderstanding can border on a perversion of understanding. That is why it is necessary to strive for maximum success in communication.
There are people who are not very talkative. They may listen to you with attention, but at the same time you will not see it. It seems to you that they simply do not want to listen to you, but in fact your interlocutor has such a habit and for him this is the norm of communication. Often this is the behavior of people who either have a respected position in society, or are tall and large. Often, when talking with such people, we feel uncomfortable, embarrassed, and sometimes we stop, because. it seems to us that we are not being listened to very carefully or simply ignored. This is often facilitated by our own setting before the conversation. If someone told us something that does not honor the interlocutor, before the conversation, then we have an alienation, and, moreover, not always legitimate.
1.3. Attitudes in communication
Installation is a very annoying thing. It can interfere with the beginning of a conversation or lead to conflict in the process of communication.
Attitudes of every kind play an extremely important role in the theoretical and practical activities of man and are prominent in the processes of communication. In order not to get into trouble yourself and not to embarrass the interlocutor, you need to know what an attitude is, how it develops in the conditions of communication, how it can be changed and how it should be managed. Do mentally (you can do it in practice!) Such an experiment. You and your friend are in the cinema. The lights went out and the screening of the film began. Everyone (and you and your friend too) are closely watching what is happening on the screen. Suddenly you ask a friend (in a whisper, of course, but so that you can be heard): "Remember, please, what is the name of the egg-laying mammal. Platypus, or what?" If the film has no thematic connection with your platypus and zoology in general at the moment, you can be sure that your question will not even be heard. You will definitely be asked. But after all, if you ask something pertinent, concerning the plot of the film, the characteristics of the actor, etc., you will be answered. Even if you ask your question more quietly than the first one. Why? Yes, because "appropriate", "understandable" is what is most probable in this situation, what is customary to say in this situation, what is included in the "installation on the perception of this film." Everything else is outside the field of attention, and therefore is not recognized, not understood.
Very often we have to deal with a situation where our own joke does not evoke the expected reaction, be it laughter or at least a smile. And if we ourselves do not find anything funny in a friend's joke? How to proceed then? Especially if someone played a joke on someone, and this second one was offended. Usually those people who have a great sense of humor start communication very well, and those who do not have such an important sense of humor find it difficult to start a conversation, get to know each other. You can agree with this, you can disagree, but the fact remains that not every one of us has a sense of humor. The difficulty of discovering an underdeveloped sense of humor in oneself lies in the fact that there are no people at all who would not laugh, who would not find it funny. But laughter can be caused by different reasons. For example, it is not appropriate to laugh at the sight of a plump woman walking down the street carrying a heavy bag of groceries. But there are people who find it funny, and the funnier it is, the more different things roll out of the bag that has fallen, the more there will be a roar. A person who is able to laugh at all this is probably not able to think of anything funnier than removing a chair from under a person sitting on it. It can be said with almost complete certainty that such a "joker" has not yet grown up to understand what is really funny and knows little or does not know the best examples of humor. But this does not mean that a sense of humor cannot be developed.
SETTINGS
With the outlined approach, the speech-activity norm of communication appears as a collection of speech-communicative duties and rights of the individual. In relation to the ethical component of speech culture, the basic concept can be considered the national cultural and speech tradition, and the principle of description is the calculation of the main ethical attitudes of speech communication, followed by a description of the behavioral implementations of these attitudes in speech tactics and methods of speech use used by communicants in all or part of situations. .
The ethical line of verbal communication is provided not only by special politeness formulas and parallel nominations of different stylistic coloring. Ethical balance is also achieved through speech-behavioral operations in the field of all textual categories (people communicate through texts) and the choice of speech strategies.
The design of the ethical content of communication is fundamentally variable, and it is necessary for the speaker: the option is carried out on the basis of the ethical attitudes and psychological characteristics of the communicants (the anthropological factor is the leading one), but also taking into account the scope of speech activity (intralinguistically, this is a functional style factor), as well as the social roles of the communicants (intralinguistically - the factor of speech proficiency, or speech competence). When describing the core of the ethical component - general ethical norms - factors secondary in importance can be pushed aside. A complete description of the component involves taking into account all three groups of factors.
To demonstrate the stated provisions, let us dwell on parity as the main ethical principle of verbal communication and politeness as its main cultural landmark. In terms of analysis - colloquial texts as the material of informal informal speech communication, those in which the psychological goal, i.e. communication itself, communication as a humanitarian value, is put by communicants above informational and logical goals. Such a hierarchy of goals - phatic communication, according to T. Vinokur - is typical for colloquial conversation, chatter as a colloquial genre, perhaps for flirting. For comparison, the official business style is chosen as a set of texts with opposite dominants, primarily with the dominance of logical content.
Setting on phatic communication gives each communicant the following rights: 1) to subordinate the logical content of the conversation to phatic, aimed at communication itself; 2) self-affirmation and open self-expression; 3) to axiological freedom, i.e. the ability to subject any subject of speech and component of a communicative act to individual subjective assessments; 4) to regulate the partner's speech behavior within the framework of normative and cultural interactions and in accordance with one's attitudes and well-being; 5) to an individual speech manner; 6) to reciprocity on the part of the speech partner in all parameters of communication.
The named rights (intuitively collected their list, of course, is very approximate) turn into the following duties for the communicant: 1) to master the technique of phatic communication and subordinating the logical content of speech to it; 2) own ways and self-expression and know the border of culture and "anti-culture" in this area; 3) use a wide range of assessments, correlating them with the system of moral rules of the cultural community and with the personality of your speech partner; 4) remember the reciprocity of communicative interests and adequately respond to the regulation of their speech by a partner; 5) correlate individual habits and creative needs with the cultural and speech code of the communicative qualities of speech and the speech competence of the partner, observe the measure in the field of speech freedom; 6) maintain a modal politeness strategy.
Technologically, the realization of the rights and obligations of the individual is expressed in specific speech-activity operations, the inventory of which should constitute the "body" of the scientific description of the ethical component of speech communication. The grounds for grouping such operations are not yet clear, but grouping on a categorical-textual basis within the framework of a procedural representation of a text can be proposed as an initial experience.
Let us take the category of text in its procedural development and try to trace the speaker's operations with the topic in terms of rights and obligations, focusing on the first dichotomy from the above lists: the "right" to subordinate the logical content of the conversation to the phatic and the "duty" to master the cultural technique of phatic communication. In a generalized textual form, the named right is realized as the admissibility of the polythematic nature of the subject-logical series in phatic speech communication under the influence of subjective-modal dominance.
In a more specific operational view, from the point of view of the rights / obligations of the communicant, the following is observed:
1. The communicant has the right to initiate a subject topic that is interesting from his point of view for its joint discussion.
The obligations imposed with all this on the initiator are that the topic must be acceptable from a general ethical standpoint (objective-ethical aspect), as well as from the ethical standpoint of the speech partner (subjective-ethical aspect). The theme of the initial episodes in the colloquial-phatic genres has long been comprehended and is largely international. These are news, weather, art and other topics focused on entertainment and optimism.
Phatic communication traditionally imposes restrictions on the complex and painful topics of everyday life and being, a set of which is also comprehended in cultural tradition (death, personal tragedies, etc.). If these topics cannot be avoided, then they are not initiated at the very beginning of communication and are not discussed in depth and at length. The exception is a conversation - a joint complaint that is in circulation in Russian speech life.
The key verbs of thematic initiatives are SPEAK / SAY, TELL AND HEAR / LISTEN, LISTEN. In the repertoire of remarks, formulas are standard: they say that ...; you have already heard that…; listen to what happened yesterday..., as well as individualized options: You will never guess what happened yesterday......! Well, yesterday you looked into the water ...; No, after all, they don’t take me as a psychic in vain ...
Setting on politeness and parity obliges the communicant to request a subject topic from the speech partner from time to time, i.e. transfer to him the right of initiative in the subject-thematic area: Tell us about yours, please. What's new with you? Well, who what and how?
For comparison, in a business conversation there is an operational similarity (a phatic beginning is necessary to create a comfortable atmosphere of communication), but the selection of initial topics is much stricter, the repertoire of replicas of a thematic initiative is more standard.
2. At the stage of development of a subject-logical topic, the communicant has the right to a relatively extensive development of the conversation (in orientation to the general laws of logic and rhetoric: division into subtopics, argumentation and illustration, comparison, etc.), as well as the obligation to correct this process in depending on the role of the speech partner. The partner can be a peer developer of the topic, an attentive listener, an opponent of the speaker, etc., so the options for deploying the topic will be very different.
The harmonious flow of the phatic genre implies constant concern for speech equality or, in the case of recognized inequality, respect for the role status of communicants. The duty of each communicant is to take care of the interest in the topic on the part of the speech partner and show their own interest or disinterest. If the speech partner participates in the development of the topic by means of lengthy statements, clarifying questions, "yes" and emotional reactions, then the initiator has the right to continue the subject topic. If the intellectual and emotional activity of the speech partner tends to zero, then there is a thematic rejection or thematic fatigue, and then the interlocutor who proposed the topic is obliged to change it or respond to the partner’s proposal for replacement.
In a business dialogue, the communicant has the right to thematic movement only within the framework of a given subject-conceptual layer, dictated by the practical and pragmatic goal of communication. An arbitrary proposal of an extraneous topic is not accepted (although it may indicate an additional hidden strategy of the initiator).
Setting on parity requires changing roles and constantly balancing between one's own interests and the interests of the interlocutor. Cultural disproportion can be restored through special speech techniques. So, abuse in the subject-thematic sphere, the desire to speak on a certain topic more than the speech partner wants, can be regulated by the latter with the help of "speech overlays": "zero reaction" to what is being said, which after a while is recognized by the communicative leader (in the norm. ); a brief remark aimed at curtailing the topic: Well, it's the same as always; I've already been told about it; You already said; Yes, yes, it happens, but it's hard to believe; Do you think so?; light rebuke to the interlocutor: Is it worth it to worry so much? In my opinion, this is nothing; Do not make mountains out of molehills. Restraining someone else's speech, especially emotionally colored, is an action whose ethics are always in question. This is a complex speech-cultural technique bordering on manifestations of "anti-culture", it is regulated by the tact of the interlocutors, and here there are the least speech standards.
3. Replacing the subject-logical theme is a way to move the conversation along the subjective-modal direction. Probably, each genre of phatic communication is characterized by its own rhythms of thematic fragments, but in any of them, the speakers change subject-logical topics. This operation is reflected in the corresponding clichéd constructions: Why not change the subject? Let's move on to another topic; This is a difficult topic; It is better not to touch on this topic, etc. and nominations: a sore subject; fertile topic; a related topic, etc. The regulation of the thematic series is carried out with the help of a large number of individualized reactions, often in the form of a hint: Don't rub salt in my wound; Don't bring up a topic that hurts me.
It is possible that the scope of the subject-logical development of the topic in informal informal communication is regulated by the national speech culture not only logically and psychologically, but also biologically. "Thematic fatigue" can be determined, in particular, by biological rhythms, climatic fluctuations, the speaker's state of health.
4. The completion of the text of the analyzed genres is characterized by the elimination of the subject-logical theme (themes) in favor of the subjective-modal content sphere. Only a reminder of the topic is used: About ... I'll call you tomorrow; Oh... don't worry, everything will be alright; with ... - you did great. The examples already given show that the speakers made a selection of the topics raised earlier. At parting, they mention the topic that made the greatest impression, was presented as the most significant for the interlocutor, i.e. functionally superior. In this role, it can turn out to be both practically important, and purely intellectual or aesthetically interesting.
Each of the positions discussed above can be transformed into a number of cultural and speech recommendations - operational rules for building a text of a certain style and genre. Let's add a mentally similar consideration of other categories and the derivation of evaluation rules, psychological self-disclosure of influence on the interlocutor. In general, behind their code there will be a linguoculturological phenomenon of the rights and obligations of an individual in speech communication.
The antinomy of speech-communicative rights and obligations can be placed at the center of a communicative orthology, which will be able to describe typical speech operations when generating a text, as well as identify different types of personality in speech communication: a communicant who is law-abiding and violates the laws of communication, exceeding and underestimating his rights, etc. d. The main thing is that orthology with this approach can become not a warehouse of things, but a guide to action.
1.4. Conditions for the effectiveness of speech perception
Of all the skills that define communication, the ability to listen is the most necessary, and it is this that needs to be improved the most. “The talent of an interlocutor is distinguished not by the one who willingly speaks himself, but by the one with whom others willingly speak” (La Rochefoucauld). Lack of listening skills is a major cause of ineffective communication as it leads to misunderstandings, mistakes and problems.
In the process of human communication, the difference between two seemingly close concepts is clearly manifested: “listen” and “hear”. We don't listen because we mistakenly think that listening is simply not speaking, but that's far from the case. Listening is an active process that requires attention to what is being said. The listener, unlike the reader, cannot be distracted even for a very short time, since it is as if he dies at the moment when it leaves the speaker's mouth. Therefore, this skill must be trained in oneself in order to always be in shape.
Most of our reactions interfere with the interlocutor and disrupt the course of his thoughts, do not provide a correct understanding of the words and feelings of the interlocutor, make him feel that he is not heard, consider his experiences ridiculous, insignificant. These interferences invariably force the interlocutor to resort to protection, causing irritation and indignation (for example, when we judge everything that we hear, we interrupt the interlocutor without listening to the end, we are not able to restrain negative emotions). Listening is an act of will, which also includes higher mental processes. To hear, we must pay attention, and this is not an easy job. Listening style reflects our personalities, character, interests and aspirations, position, gender and age.
Observing how 2-3 people are listening to each other, leading a general conversation, you can be sure that listening is an active process. This is also true in the sense that it requires the possession of certain techniques that significantly increase the effectiveness of communication.
Managing voluntary attention is an effective means of improving the effectiveness of communications. However, this is also the most difficult, because human attention is constantly distracted. That's why so many people don't listen well. Some techniques are obvious, such as the use of eye contact and certain gestures. Others are less obvious and are connected by our attitude towards the interlocutor, understanding, approval, empathy towards the speaker. We say, "I'm all ears," when we're burning with a special desire to hear something interesting. Unconsciously, we take the appropriate posture: we turn our faces towards the speaker, establish visual contact with him, in other words, listen to the interlocutor. We take this posture unconsciously. But this technique should be used consciously, because. the conscious ability to be attentive is an effective means of increasing the perception of the interlocutor's speech. The listener's attention helps the speaker. Experimental studies of public speaking and private conversations show that if listeners listen carefully, then the speaker begins to speak more clearly, use gestures more often, in other words, "enter" the role.
An important role for establishing contact and communication is played by a positive language of postures and gestures. Posture can express a desire or unwillingness to listen and communicate.
A simple but powerful method to increase the effectiveness of listening is non-reflective communication. It essentially consists in the ability to be attentively silent. Such perception can be called passive conditionally. All that is needed is the simplest neutral stimulating remarks or non-verbal means - repetition of the last words of the speaker, “mirror”, interjections (“uh-huh” - assent), nods, facial reactions, eye contact. Such techniques inspire the speaker, relieve tension arising from the fear of being misunderstood. Non-reflective listening is best suited for stressful situations. This gives the listeners emotional relief. Non-reflective listening is very useful, but it must be used skillfully.
For a more accurate understanding of the interlocutor, methods of reflective listening are used. It is an objective feedback from the speaker, used as a control of the accuracy of perception of what is heard.
In this case, feedback is given to listeners in speech form through the following techniques: asking open and closed questions on the topic of conversation, paraphrasing the words of the interlocutor, allowing the same thought to be expressed in other words (paraphrase), summarizing and presenting intermediate conclusions.
So, to be a good conversationalist, you need to be a good listener. Very seldom are people protected from the subtle flattery of scrutiny.
Many people fail to make a good impression just because they don't know how to listen carefully. They are so interested in what they want to say themselves that they forget to keep their ears open, moreover, when we are negative, we are unnecessarily critical, which makes it difficult for mutual understanding and active listening, and causes the hostility of the speaker. Also, don't give unsolicited advice unless asked. Unsolicited advice is usually given by someone who will never help.
To acquire communication skills, it is necessary to observe the peculiarities of communication of others (as a visual aid). Otherwise it is learning to swim on the beach.
CONCLUSIONS:
1. Communication - a specific exchange of information, as a result of which there is a process of transferring information of intellectual and emotional content from the sender to the recipient.
2. There are four theoretical models of communication: psychoanalytic (Z. Freud, K. Jung), existentialist (M. Buber, K. Jaspers), understanding (M. Weber), futurological (A. Toffler).
3. The attitude towards phatic communication traditionally imposes restrictions on the complex and painful topics of everyday life and being, a set of which is also comprehended in cultural tradition (death, personal tragedies, etc.). If these topics cannot be avoided, then they are not initiated at the very beginning of communication and are not discussed in depth and at length. Setting on politeness and parity obliges the communicant to request a subject topic from the speech partner from time to time, i.e. transfer to him the right of initiative in the subject area
4. A simple but effective method of increasing the effectiveness of listening is non-reflective communication. It essentially consists in the ability to be attentively silent. Such perception can be called passive conditionally. All you need is the simplest neutral stimulating remarks or non-verbal means - repetition of the last words of the speaker, “mirror”, interjections, nods, facial reactions, eye contact.
CHAPTER2. EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION OF RELATIONSHIPSINSTALLATIONS IN COMMUNICATION AND CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE SPEECH PERCEPTION IN ADOLESCENTS
2.1 Organization of the study
Having considered the theoretical basis of our topic, we will move on to practical proof of our hypothesis that there is a relationship between communication attitudes and listening skills.
The subject of our study is the analysis of attitudes in communication and the conditions for the effective perception of teenagers' speech.
The study was conducted on the basis of secondary school No. 33 in Minsk, students of the 11th grade of 46 adolescents aged 16-18 years.
At the first stage we carried out: Test "Your communicative attitude" and Test of assessment of communicative skills.
At the third stage, we statistically proved our hypothesis using the Mann-Whitney U-test. The criterion is designed to assess the differences between two samples in terms of the level of any trait, quantitatively measured. It allows you to identify differences between small samples, when n1 n2 ? 3 or n1 = 2, n2 ? 5, and is more powerful than the Rosenbaum criterion.
2.2. Research methods and techniques
Test "Your communicative attitude"
The test consists of 25 questions to which the respondent must answer "yes" or "no".
After scoring, we can observe signs of a negative attitude:
5. This component of the installation shows to what extent you were lucky in life with the closest circle of acquaintances and partners in joint activities (in the previous indicators, rather general situations were assessed).
Communication skills assessment test
Instructions: Answers should be given to 10 questions that are evaluated: "almost always", "in most cases", "sometimes", "rarely", "almost never".
2.3. Analysis and interpretation of results
Now let's summarize our research. At the first stage we carried out: Test "Your communicative attitude" and Test of assessment of communicative skills.
At the second stage, we carried out qualitative and quantitative processing of the results.
The study was conducted on the basis of secondary school No. 33 in Minsk. Our sample included 46 adolescents aged 16-18 years.
Table 2.1. we will present the results of the test "Your communicative attitude".
Table 2.1.
The results of the test "Your communicative attitude"
grumbling | Negative personal experience with others. | |||||
Tatyana V. | ||||||
Dmitry V. | ||||||
Natalya K. | ||||||
Vitaly P. | ||||||
Andrew L. | ||||||
Dmitry L. | ||||||
Valery P. | ||||||
Larissa P. | ||||||
Svetlana I. | ||||||
Tatyana G. | ||||||
Victoria F. | ||||||
Marina T. | ||||||
Natalia C. | ||||||
Stanislav P. | ||||||
Eugene D. | ||||||
Andrew H. | ||||||
Sergei S. | ||||||
Vladimir A. | ||||||
Natalya K. | ||||||
Dmitry L. | ||||||
Oksana L. | ||||||
Konstantin V. | ||||||
Valeria I. |
Thus, from this table 2.1. we see that 23 (50%) adolescents are friendly, responsive, low scores on the Veiled Cruelty scale testify to this. 7% (15%) of adolescents, on the contrary, in a disguised, muted or indirect form of personality judgments contain hostility, wariness in relationships with many partners, negative conclusions about people, unwillingness to respond to their problems. Such attitudes carry negative energy.
6 (13%) teenagers hide and do not mitigate their negative assessments and feelings about the majority of those around them. And 18% (39%) of adolescents, who are straightforward personalities, do not hide or soften their negative assessments and feelings about the majority of those around them.
11 (24%) adolescents do not draw negative conclusions about certain types of people and certain aspects of interaction. But the same number of adolescents 11 (24%), on the contrary, draw negative conclusions about certain types of people and certain aspects of interaction: after all, distressing phenomena take place in life, it would be naive not to notice them. That is why the share of negativism in the attitude towards people is inevitable - you cannot perceive reality through rose-colored glasses.
6 (13%) adolescents are not inclined to make unreasonable generalizations of negative facts in the field of relationships with partners and in observing social reality. But 11 (24%), on the contrary, tend to make unreasonable generalizations of negative facts in the field of relationships with partners and in observing social reality.
5 (11%) adolescents did not have a negative experience in relation to others. 16 (35%), unfortunately, were mistaken in people. They were unlucky in life for the closest circle of acquaintances and partners in joint activities.
According to the test of communication skills assessment, we received the following results, presented in Table 2.2.
The results were obtained by summing up the scores. So, the more points, the more developed the ability to listen. If more than 62 points are scored, then the listener is “above average”. Usually the average score of listeners is 55.
The results obtained make it possible to talk about the level of communication skills, the ability to listen and also to be understood by the interlocutor.
Table 2.2.
The results of the test for assessing communication skills
meaning. | meaning. | |||||
Natalia C. | ||||||
Tatyana V. | Stanislav P. | |||||
Eugene D. | ||||||
Dmitry V. | ||||||
Andrew H. | ||||||
Sergei S. | ||||||
Vladimir A. | ||||||
Natalya K. | Natalya K. | |||||
Vitaly P. | ||||||
Andrew L. | ||||||
Dmitry L. | ||||||
Valery P. | ||||||
Larissa P. | ||||||
Svetlana I. | Dmitry L. | |||||
Tatyana G. | Oksana L. | |||||
Konstantin V. | ||||||
Victoria F. | Valeria I. | |||||
Marina T. |
According to this Table 2.2. we can observe the following picture. The ability to listen is highly developed in 14 (30.4%) adolescents. In 24 (52%) adolescents, the ability to listen is developed to an average degree, they are good interlocutors, but sometimes they refuse their partner full attention, they have some inherent shortcomings. They are critical of statements, they still lack some of the virtues of a good interlocutor. 8 (17%) adolescents do not have the ability to listen. They are bad conversationalists. They need to work on themselves and learn to listen.
Now let's move on to the third stage of our work. We will compare the data obtained to confirm our hypothesis that there is a relationship between communication attitudes and listening skills.
To do this, we are in Table 2.3. Let's summarize the results of our research and use Spearman's rank correlation to prove our hypothesis.
Table 2.3.
Summary table of research results
Subject's name | Communication skills | Communicative setting | |||||
Veiled cruelty in relation to people, in judgments about them. | Open cruelty in relation to people, or straightforwardness | Justified negativism in judgments about people. | grumbling | Negative personal experience with others. | |||
Tatyana V. | |||||||
Dmitry V. | |||||||
Natalya K. | |||||||
Vitaly P. | |||||||
Andrew L. | |||||||
Dmitry L. | |||||||
Valery P. | |||||||
Larissa P. | |||||||
Svetlana I. | |||||||
Tatyana G. | |||||||
Victoria F. | |||||||
Marina T. | |||||||
Natalia C. | |||||||
Stanislav P. | |||||||
Eugene D. | |||||||
Andrew H. | |||||||
Sergei S. | |||||||
Vladimir A. | |||||||
Natalya K. | |||||||
Dmitry L. | |||||||
Oksana L. | |||||||
Konstantin V. | |||||||
Valeria I. |
Let's use the program STATISTIKA 6.0, we will reveal the relationship.
Spearman Rank Order Correlations (new.sta)
MD pairwise deleted
N R t(N-2) p-level
COM_SMART & COM_SM
COM_SMART & Z_GEST46-,430355-3,16249,002833
COM_SMART & FROM_GESTURE46,6788896,13319,000000
COM_SMART & NEGATIVE46-,534784-4,19811,000129
COM_UMEN & BRUZZHAN46-,083596-,55646,580717
COM_SMART & NEGAT_OP46-,500003-3,82974,000403
As can be seen, on the scale of open cruelty there is a high positive correlation at p?0.01, while on the other scales there is a high negative correlation.
Answer: The correlation between communication attitudes and the conditions for effective speech perception in adolescence is statistically significant (p<0,01) и является положительной.
Statistically, we have shown that certain attitudes in communication, in our case it is open cruelty in relations with people, or straightforwardness, affect the ability to listen.
CONCLUSIONS:
The concept of "communication skills" includes not only the assessment of the interlocutor, the determination of his strengths and weaknesses, but also the ability to establish a friendly atmosphere, the ability to understand the problems of the interlocutor, etc.
We have conducted a study and we can say the following, that the subjects who know how to listen, they are characterized by open cruelty in relation to people. They are straightforward, do not hide or soften their negative assessments and feelings about the majority of those around them: they draw sharp conclusions about them.
Thus, our hypothesis is that there is a relationship between communicative attitudes and the ability to listen. In our case, straightforward personalities have a highly developed ability to listen, which was also proved by the statistical method.
CONCLUSION
Summing up our research, we can note the following.
An analysis of the literature showed that the essence of interpersonal communication lies in the interaction of a person with a person. The features of interpersonal interaction in any community are largely determined by how its members perceive and understand each other, what emotional response they mainly evoke in each other, and what style of behavior they choose.
In relation to the ethical component of speech culture, the basic concept can be considered the national cultural and speech tradition, and the principle of description is the calculation of the main ethical attitudes of speech communication, followed by a description of the behavioral implementations of these attitudes in speech tactics and methods of speech use used by communicants in all or part of situations. .
The ethical line of verbal communication is provided not only by special politeness formulas and parallel nominations of different stylistic coloring. Ethical balance is also achieved through speech-behavioral operations in the field of all textual categories (people communicate through texts) and the choice of speech strategies.
In the course of the study, the initial hypothesis that there is a relationship between communicative attitudes and the ability to listen was confirmed both by qualitative and quantitative analysis and by the statistical method of the Mann-Whitney U-test.
The study made it possible to establish: adolescents who know how to listen have high scores on the scale of open cruelty in relations with people or straightforwardness. These are straightforward personalities, they do not hide and do not soften their negative assessments and feelings about the majority of those around them.
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ATTACHMENT 1
Test "Your communicative attitude"
You need to read each of the following judgments and answer "yes" or "no", expressing agreement or disagreement with them. We recommend using a piece of paper on which the question number and your answer are recorded; then, in the course of our further explanations, refer to your record. Be attentive and sincere:
1. My principle in dealing with people: trust, but verify
2. It is better to think badly about a person and make a mistake than vice versa (think good and make a mistake).
3. High-ranking officials, as a rule, are tricky and cunning.
4. Today's youth have forgotten how to experience a deep feeling of love.
5. Over the years, I became more secretive, because I often had to pay for my gullibility.
6. In almost any team, there is envy or intrigue.
7. Most people lack compassion for others.
8. Most pupils and students in educational institutions try to get their hands on everything that lies badly.
9. Most teenagers today are brought up worse than ever.
10. In my life there were often cynical people.
11. It happens like this: you do good to people, and then you regret it, because they pay with ingratitude.
12. Kindness should be with fists.
13. With our generation it is possible to build a happy society in the near future.
14. You see stupid people around you more often than smart ones.
15. Most people with whom you have to do business play decent, but in fact they are different.
16. I am a very trusting person.
17. Those who believe that we should be more afraid of people, not animals, are right.
18. Mercy in our society will remain an illusion for the foreseeable future.
19. Our reality makes a person standard, faceless.
20. Good manners in my environment at school (university) is a rare quality
21. I practically always stop to give a token for a pay phone at the request of a passerby in exchange for money.
22 Most people will commit immoral acts for self-interest.
23. People, as a rule, lack initiative in their studies.
24. Elderly people in the majority show their anger to everyone.
25. Most people in the study group like to gossip about each other.
So, you have read the questions and recorded your answers. Now we turn to data processing and interpretation of the results.
SIGNS OF A NEGATIVE INSTALLATION
1. Veiled cruelty in relation to people, in judgments about them. In a disguised, muted or indirect form, personality judgments contain ill will, wariness in relationships with many partners, negative conclusions about people, unwillingness to respond to their problems. Such attitudes carry negative energy. Of course, there are not so many volunteers who themselves would admit to them. Most of us believe in our benevolence, responsiveness and other socially approved qualities, ignoring or smoothing out in self-assessments that contradicts the desired "I". However, life shows something else.
Veiled rigidity in relations with people is evidenced by the following answer options (the number of points awarded for the corresponding option is indicated in brackets):
1 - yes (3), 6 - yes (3), 11 - yes (7), 16 - no (3), 21 - no (4).
The maximum you can score is 20 points.
2. Open cruelty in relation to people or straightforwardness. The personality is straightforward, does not hide or soften his negative assessments and feelings about the majority of those around him: the conclusions about them are sharp, unambiguous and made, perhaps forever.
You can judge open rigidity by the following questions from the above questionnaire:
2 - yes (9), 7 - yes (8), 12 - yes (10), 17 - yes (10), 22 - yes (8).
Low scores: 1-15; medium: 16-30; high: 31-45.
The maximum you can score is 45 points.
3. Justified negativism in judgments about people. This is expressed in objectively conditioned negative conclusions about certain types of people and certain aspects of interaction: after all, distressing phenomena take place in life, which it would be naive not to notice. That is why the share of negativism in the attitude towards people is inevitable - you cannot perceive reality through rose-colored glasses.
Justified negativism is found in the following questions and answers:
3 - yes (1), 8 - yes (1), 13 - no (1), 18 - yes (1), 23 - yes (1).
Low scores: 1; medium: 2-3; high: 4-5.
The maximum number of points is 5.
4. Grumbling, that is, the tendency to make unreasonable generalizations of negative facts in the field of relationships with partners and in observing social reality.
The following questions testify to the presence of such a component in a negative attitude:
4 - yes (2), 9 - yes (2), 14 - yes (2), 19 - yes (2), 24 - yes (2).
Low scores: 1-3; medium: 4-6; high: 7-10.
The maximum number of points is 10.
5. Negative personal experience of communication with others. This component of the attitude shows the extent to which you were lucky in life with your closest circle of acquaintances and partners in joint activities (in the previous indicators, rather general situations were assessed).
The following questions testify to the negative personal experience of contacts:
5 - yes (5), 10 - yes (5), 15 - yes (5), 20 - yes (4), 25 - yes (1).
Low scores: 1-7; medium: 8-12; high: 13-20.
The maximum you can score is 20 points.
APPENDIX 2
Communication skills assessment test
The concept of "communication skills" includes not only the assessment of the interlocutor, the determination of his strengths and weaknesses, but also the ability to establish a friendly atmosphere, the ability to understand the problems of the interlocutor, etc. To test these qualities, this test is offered.
Instructions: 10 questions should be answered, which are evaluated:
1) "almost always" - 2 points;
2) "in most cases" - 3 points;
3) "sometimes" - 6 points;
4) "rarely" - 8 points;
5) "almost never" - 10 points.
A list of questions
1. Do you try to curtail the conversation in cases where the topic (or interlocutor) is not interesting to you?
2. Do your partner's manners annoy you?
3. Can another person's bad expression provoke you to be harsh or rude?
4. Do you avoid engaging in conversation with a person you don't know or don't know well?
5. Do you have a habit of interrupting the speaker?
6. Do you pretend to listen carefully, but you yourself are thinking about something completely different?
8. Do you change the subject of a conversation if it touches on a topic that is unpleasant for you?
9. Do you correct a person if in his speech there are incorrectly pronounced words, a name, vulgarisms?
10. Do you sometimes have a condescending-mentoring tone with a touch of disdain and irony in relation to the one you are talking to?
Processing and interpretation
The more points, the more developed the ability to listen. If more than 62 points are scored, then the listener is “above average”. Usually the average score of listeners is 55