Biology at the Lyceum. Ground and shrub-arboreal birds Ways of obtaining food
Municipal educational institution of additional education for children
"Ecological and biological center"
Dzhankoy region
Birds in our garden Key to trees and shrubs living in the Dzhankoy region
/ Compilers : T.A. Arsievich, M.D. Govorova, teachers of additional education, MOU DOD "Ecological and Biological Center" of the Dzhankoy district, 2015/
Methodological guide for determining the species composition of birds living in the territory of the Dzhankoy district to help students, teachers of biology, teachers of additional education for children of ecological and biological orientation
Nature always fascinates with the diversity of its manifestations. The richness of plant and animal species in any region of our planet is an indicator of the state of the environment.
Birds surround us everywhere: on vacation among nature, in the city, while working in the garden or in the garden. Almost everyone knows a sparrow, a swallow, a tit, a magpie, a rook, a crow. They have adapted to life next to humans and do not hide from us. Linnet, blackbird, chaffinch can be heard more often, although it is not so difficult to see.
Living in settlements, and being in constant care, we almost do not pay attention to the fact that a rich bird world lives next to us. It needs to be known and studied.
To enjoy nature and birdsong requires knowledge of the biology and behavior of birds, so that birds can be found and observed.
This manual has been prepared as a guide to tree and shrubby birds in the Dzhankoy region of the Republic of Crimea. We really hope that it will help you learn more about birds and make you want to become their protectors.
Syrian woodpecker - Dendrocopos syriacus
It is very similar to the great spotted woodpecker, but the black stripe from the corner of the beak does not reach the back of the head and the white color of the cheeks is combined with the white color of the neck.
Inhabits deciduous, mixed, rarely coniferous forests, floodplain forests, gardens and groves on plains and mountains. Sedentary bird. Few. Habits and voice, like a great spotted woodpecker. Feeds on insects, seeds in winter and autumn. Nesting and other aspects of biology have not been studied.
White Wagtail - Motacilla alba
In an adult bird, the top, and sometimes the sides of the head, the throat, the top of the chest, the tail and wings are black, the back is gray or black, the forehead, the stripe from the beak through the eye to the ear (sometimes the sides of the head), the stripes on the sides of the tail and on the wings and the entire underside of the body is white. Juveniles are gray without black spots.
Inhabits floodplains, banks of various reservoirs and cultural landscape. Common, sometimes numerous bird. It lives alone, in pairs, and on migration in flocks. Usually seen on the ground and rocks, sometimes perches on bushes and trees. Nests in hollows, under the roofs of houses, in niches and cracks in rocks and cliffs, etc. Clutch of 5-6 white with gray spots eggs in April-July. The cry is a loud "tsiti-tsyuri" and a short "chterlich". A song is a repetition of these sounds.
ringed turtledove
Inhabits all tree plantations of Ukraine, differs from the rock dove in smaller sizes, from the forest dove - in the presence of a black "collar". Especially willingly settles in settlements. Nesting begins very early, sometimes building nests in winter. The nest is a loose, careless "platform" of small twigs, most often at the ends of branches in the crowns of trees. Sometimes inhabits the cornices of human buildings. Due to careless fixing of the nest, it is often destroyed during strong winds. Therefore, the turtle dove is characterized by repeated masonry, there may be 3-4 of them per year.
Long-eared owl - Asio otus
It inhabits forests of various types (including mountain forests), prefers coniferous species, and does not avoid cultural landscapes (gardens, parks). Sedentary and nomadic, sometimes migratory bird. Normal. Breeds in old nests of other birds (crows, raptors), rarely in tree cavities. Clutch from the end of April, consists of 4-6 white eggs. Strictly nocturnal bird, spends the day clinging tightly to a tree trunk. The voice is a deaf "hoo-hoo" or a plaintive "ooo" and other sounds, in the spring on the fly sometimes flaps its wings loudly. In autumn, they often gather in flocks of 15-20 individuals. It feeds on mouse-like rodents, less often on birds. One of the most useful birds of our fauna, it is subject to protection everywhere.
Wren - Troglodytes troglodytes
Very small mobile bird with a short upturned tail. The beak is straight, the wings are short, rounded. The upper side of the body, wings and tail are chestnut-brown with a transverse dark pattern, the bottom is grayish or brownish with a transverse dark pattern.
Lives in bushes in a wide variety of landscapes on the plains and in the mountains, prefers damp ravines or forests with heaps of deadwood and windbreak. Common resident and nomadic bird. Keeps alone or in pairs on the ground or bushes and fallen trunks. Very mobile. The voice is a sharp "cherr-cherr." The song is loud ringing trills. The nest is spherical with a lateral entrance; it is usually placed on tree trunks overgrown with moss, under roots or in piles of deadwood. Clutches of 4-7 white eggs with brown-red speckles in May-June. Feeds on small invertebrates.
Drozd-Rowanberry - Turdus pilaris
Large thrush. The top of the head, the neck and uppertail are bluish-gray, the back is chestnut-brown, the wings and tail are blackish-brown, the bottom is white with black streaks on the chest and sides and an buffy bloom on the chest.
Inhabits various types of forest. Common migratory and nomadic bird. Lives in flocks, usually nesting in colonies. Feeds in trees and on the ground. Noisy, conspicuous bird. The voice is a loud crack. Singing is a set of coarse crackling sounds. The nest stands in a tree or bush in the form of a cup of dry grass, twigs and silt or earth. Clutch of 4-7 greenish eggs with brown spots in May-July. It feeds on invertebrates in spring and summer, and mainly berries in autumn and winter.
Blackbird - Turdus merula
Large thrush. The color of the male is completely black, the beak and eyelids are orange. The female and young are brown-gray with a dark beak.
Lifestyle. Inhabits various types of forests, mostly deciduous and mixed, thickets of bushes, gardens and parks. Common migratory, sedentary and nomadic bird in the south. It keeps alone and in pairs, less often in groups on the ground, bushes and trees. When jumping, it often tosses its tail. While singing, the male sits motionless, usually on top of a tree. The song is a set of sad flute whistles. Shout - a sharp “chok-chok” or “terre-chok-chok”. The nest is built on the ground, on a bush or on a horizontal branch of a tree low above the ground. Clutch of 4-7 bluish-green with rusty-brown spots eggs in April-July.
Robin - Erithacus rubecula
A small (from a sparrow), high-legged bird. The coloration of the top, tail and wings is olive-gray, the forehead, sides of the head and neck, throat and chest are orange-red, the abdomen is white. Juveniles are brown with light spots.
Inhabits various types of forests, gardens and parks. Common, sometimes numerous migratory bird. Keeps alone and in pairs on the ground, bushes and trees. The male sings while sitting upright and lowering his wings somewhat. The song is a loud ringing trill. The scream is a sharp "tik-tik-tik". Nest on the ground, in a rotten stump, rarely in a hollow. Clutch of 5-6 pinkish eggs with red-brown speckles in May-June.
Chiffchaff - Phylloscopus collybitus
Smaller than a sparrow. The coloration is like that of the willow, but the bottom is often brownish, the legs are black.
Lifestyle. Inhabits forests of various types and shrubs on the plains and in the mountains. Ordinary bird. Keeps alone or in pairs in the foliage of trees or bushes. Very mobile. The nest is built on the ground or on a bush low above the ground in the form of a hut. Clutch of 5-7 white eggs with red-brown spots in May-June. Scream - a short whistle tr ... shadow-tin.
Great Tit - Parus major
The largest of our tits. The head, throat, stripe in the middle of the chest and undertail are black, the wings and tail are bluish, the back is green or bluish-gray, the chest and abdomen are yellow or white, the cheeks and the spot on the back of the head are white. They inhabit deciduous and mixed forests on the plains and in the mountains, gardens and parks. Common resident and nomadic bird. It keeps in nesting time in pairs, the rest of the time - in flocks, often together with other tits. A very active bird. Food, like other tits, crushes, holding it in its paws. The nest is arranged in a hollow. Clutch of 9-13 white eggs with red-brown spots in March-June. The cry is a voiced "pin-pin-charzhzh". The song is loud whistles like "qi-qi-qi-pi, in-cha-in-cha."
Vyaher - Parus major
The largest of all wild pigeons. The body length of the bird is 40–45 cm, weight 420–620 g, wingspan is more than 70 cm. The color of the plumage is grayish-gray. The beak at the base and the cere are reddish with a yellowish tip, on the back the grayish-gray color of the plumage turns into a gray-brown. Reddish-gray chest, white spots on the neck and fold of the wing. When taking off, it flaps its wings loudly.
The dove lives in various forests, except for pure pine forests, in parks. In places where the number is small, it eschews proximity to humans and, as a rule, does not nest near habitation.
The nest is placed openly on a tree at different heights and different distances to the trunk. The nest is a thin, loose, usually translucent flooring of dry woody twigs and branches with a very flat tray. Sometimes the bird also occupies other people's nests. The clutch usually contains two pure white eggs, both parents incubate for 17–18 days. The chicks spend about 26–28 days in the nest.
It feeds on berries, seeds of cereals and legumes. Occasionally feeds on caterpillars.
Magpie -Magpie
The size of a jackdaw with a long tail. The head, neck, back, front of the chest are black. The lower part of the chest and sides are white. It lives in populated areas, along the banks of water bodies, on the edges of forests, forest belts, fields with clumps of bushes or groups of trees. Xoposho yznavaema Po vneshnemy vidy, golocy-ctpekotaniyu, shapoobpaznym gnezdam, Ocnovanie gnezda ykpeplyayut, neskolko dney zhdyt, an activity that poka podcoxnet and zatem of tonkix ppytikov and dpygix matepialov vykladyvayut lotok. In clutch 5-8 greenish eggs, densely covered with brownish spots. Nest building starts in March. Hatching of eggs lasts 17-18 days. A little less than a month, young birds spend in the nest. In the autumn-winter period, the magpies concentrate in populated areas and around them, for the night, gathering in hundreds of clusters in shrub massifs along the edges of human settlements. Magpies are omnivores. Their diet includes both small mammals and insects. They also often destroy bird nests by eating eggs and chicks. Magpies living next to a man are not afraid to steal some food from him.
Rook - Corvus frugilegus
Body length up to 45 cm, body weight 350-490 g. Painted completely black with a purple-blue tint. The colors of the male and female are the same. In adult birds, there is no plumage at the base of the beak and near the cheeks. Young birds have feathers at the base of the beak, but later they fall out. This gives the rook its distinctive appearance, making it impossible to confuse it with a raven. The nest is built from dry branches, lined with dry grass, sometimes with tufts of wool, thin branches, and also uses various debris. It has been used for a number of years and is repaired every year. The eggs in the nest of the rook are green, with brown spots, concentrating on the blunt end, 3-5 pieces in a clutch. The chicks hatch naked and the female hardly leaves the nest for a long time (up to about one and a half weeks). At this time, only the male feeds the chicks. Rooks are omnivorous, but mainly feed on worms and insect larvae, which they find by digging in the ground with their strong beak. Destroying a variety of harmful insects, they are of great benefit, but during the sowing period they can harm crops of grain, melons and garden crops, pecking out seeds and seedlings. In winter, they feed mainly on plant foods and human food waste.
Gray Crow - Corvus cornix
Breeds on trees, rocks, reed beds in floodplain forests, reedbeds, settlements almost everywhere to the west of the Yenisei. In the vicinity of landfills and industrial enterprises, it sometimes builds nests from pieces of wire and wire scraps. When trying to destroy a nest or catch a fledgling, dozens of birds gather to the alarming cry of their parents, and the most daring can even cuff the offender with their beak and wings. In winter, it partly migrates to the south or to cities, where it gathers in huge flocks, feeding on landfills. Voice - hoarse "carr" and other sounds.
These quick-witted birds have perfectly adapted to the human neighborhood. In recent years, for example, they have learned to systematically check bags of groceries hung out the window in winter. They know how to raise the roofs of birdhouses, if they are not screwed with wire. The rapid growth in the number of crows has led to the fact that in the cities of the European part of the country there are almost no small birds left, except for sparrows and swifts. Ravens destroy many nests of waterfowl and even birds of prey.
Yellow-headed Kinglet (Regulus regulus)
Wren - one of the smallest songbirds of Russia. Its mass is only 5-6 g. In the forest, the beetle can most likely be dried and recognized by its thin, quiet whistle: "si-si-si" or by the same whistling with a short trill at the end of the song. Hearing a thin whistle or a song, usually heard from old tall spruces, you can also notice the tiny greenish birds themselves with a bright golden cap and two light stripes on the wings. The range of the yellow-headed beetle is very large. Kinglet is widely distributed in coniferous, primarily spruce and partly pine forests of Europe, mountain forests of southern Siberia. Lives in the Himalayas and mountains of Western China, in Primorye and on Sakhalin Island. Widely distributed in taiga and mixed forests of North America. But the huge range of the beetle is very fragmented. The beetle does not inhabit vast areas of mainly larch forests of Eastern Siberia. It is not found even in many spruce forests of our North and Western Siberia. All this characterizes the kinglet as a rather heat-loving bird, inhabiting spruce forests only in relatively warm areas.
field sparrow ( Passer montanus )
field sparrow- a widespread bird of the family, a close relative of the inhabitant of cities. Unlike the latter, less dependent on the person. It is found on the outskirts of settlements, in abandoned villages and near grain crops, orchards and vineyards. In the wild, it is distributed in light forests, shrubs and steppes. Somewhat smaller than the house sparrow, it differs from it primarily in a brown cap on the head, distinct black spots on the white cheeks, a much smaller black "bib" on the throat and a collar of white feathers on the sides of the neck. A flocking bird, leads a sedentary or nomadic lifestyle. It never occurs on the same piece of land with the more pugnacious house sparrow with which it competes. In places where populations of both species intersect, field and house sparrows keep apart, albeit in the neighborhood. Originally a Eurasian species, it has been to North America, Australia and some Pacific islands. Nests in hollows of trees, old hollows of birds and burrows of mammals, in settlements under roofs of houses. Willingly occupies hollows. It feeds on plant and animal food.
Finch (Fringilla coelebs)
Songbird of the finches family, one of the most numerous birds in Russia.
The finch is about the size of a sparrow (about 17 cm long). The attire of the male during the mating season is quite beautiful - the lower part of the body from the throat and cheeks to the base of the tail is brick-red, the forehead is black, the top of the head, the back of the head and the back of the neck are ash-gray. The wing feathers are brown with white edges along the outer edge. The tail feathers are also brown, and the two extreme tail feathers have white spots. On the wings are two white, clearly visible transverse stripes. The back is brown, the rump is greenish. Females are similar in outfit to males, but the overall tone of plumage is brownish. Young birds are similar in color to females.
It lives in forests and parks of all types, often near human habitation. Nests are built on trees, usually taller than human height, masking them with moss and lichens. From the inside, the nest is lined with a large number of feathers, plant down and hair. Sometimes nests 2 times a summer. In clutch there are 3-6 bluish eggs with speckles and dashes.
Feeds on seeds and green parts of plants, in summer also on insects and other invertebrates, with which it also feeds nestlings.
The song of the chaffinch is sonorous, it is often kept in a cage like a beautiful songbird.
Goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis)
A bird of the finches family of the passerine order.
Body length 12 cm, weight 20 g. The wings are black with a yellow stripe, the crown is black or gray, the cheeks are white, there is a red ring around the beak. The tail is black with white spots at the end, the chest and abdomen with a reddish-brown tint, the uppertail is white. Females are almost indistinguishable from males. One of the differences is the wider red stripe under the base of the bill in males.
Inhabits deciduous groves, clearings, gardens. Nests are built on bushes or in the crowns of trees. The clutch contains 4-6 bluish-greenish-white eggs (the shell at the blunt end of the egg has red spots). Only the female incubates them for 12-13 days.
The goldfinch feeds on seeds, in particular, horse sorrel, burdock, thistle and other weeds; feeds chicks on insects.
The bird is often kept in a cage. Goldfinch song - sonorous trills (over 20 options).
Blue Tit, Blue Tit (Parus coeruleus)
Distribution: The range occupies most of Europe, in the north - almost to the Arctic Circle, in the south - it enters Africa, in the east - in the strip of southern forests, forest-steppe, partly steppe, reaches the Urals and further, approximately to Tyumen. It lives in deciduous and mixed forests, as well as in gardens and parks. Avoids dense forests, settles most readily on the edges.
Lifestyle: Settles in hollows hollowed out by woodpeckers, in artificial nests and natural hollows of tree trunks (the entrance has a width of 25-30 mm). Hollow height from 1 to 3 m. Nest litter - moss, dry grass, bast and other plant fibers. The clutch is large - from 7 to 14 white eggs with small red-brown spots and speckles. Egg sizes - 14-18*10-13 mm. The clutch is incubated by the female for 13-15 days, the male feeds her. Chicks sit in the nest for 15-19 days, they are fed by both parents.
Moskovka, or small tit (Parus ater)
Very small (11 cm, weight 9 g) and mobile bird from the tit family. The cheeks are dirty white, the belly is light gray. Wings and tail brownish gray. Two light transverse stripes are clearly visible on the wings. On the back of the head there is a small white spot - a characteristic distinguishing feature of the Muscovite. The sides are slightly reddish. It lives mainly in coniferous forests, however, outside the breeding season, it is found outside the forest - in gardens and parks, where it can be found near feeders. Avoids settlements.
Nests in hollows, hole size from 25 to 30 mm. Breeds from May to July. In the north, it breeds chicks once a year. Only the female incubates the eggs for 14-15 days. The chicks stay in the nest for 15 to 17 days.
It feeds on insects (during the breeding season) and seeds of conifers, especially spruce.
Ordinary grosbeak
(Coccothraustes coccothraustes)
Grosbeaks are characterized by a powerful wide and high beak, with a kind of flattened upper surface, nasal bones extending back beyond the front edges of the orbits, a straight and short tail equal to approximately half the length of the wing, strong and short legs; the first flywheel is normally developed and together with the second and third flywheels forms the apex of the wing, the fourth one is noticeably shorter, the fifth and the primary flywheels following it have a peculiar rectangular extension and a notch at the top; uppertail feathers are very long, slightly (by 8-12 mm) not reaching the tips of the middle tail feathers. The head of adult male grosbeak is brownish-brown, lighter on the forehead and ear coverts; grayish neck; chestnut-brown mantle; lower back and loin greyish; in a fresh feather on the mantle there is a grayish coating; rump olive-brown; middle wing coverts whitish, greater coverts black; the flight feathers are black, with white spots on the bases and with a blue-steel tint on the tips of the hind feathers; secondary primaries brown with metallic lustrous outer webs; tail feathers, except for the middle pair, are black, with a large white spot at the top of the inner webs; middle pair of tail feathers brown, darkening at base, whitish at apex; bridle and beak border black; there is a black spot on the throat, varying considerably in size; the rest of the bottom is pale wine-grayish-brown; the undertail and underwing are white. The iris is whitish, the beak is yellow, bluish-gray in spring and summer; brown legs. Body length about 12 cm; weight 20 g.
The female differs from the male in a paler coloration, a grayish, less brown head, a lighter belly and grayish outer webs of secondary feathers (in fresh feathers). Juveniles in nesting plumage with yellowish-brownish head, yellowish throat, without black around the beak and on the craw, with a brown slightly mottled back, whitish with black streaks below. One molt per year in autumn. Young change small plumage in the first autumn of their life, and large feathers - a year after leaving the nest.
Common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus L.)
Common nesting species. Distributed from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific. In Transbaikalia, the kestrel inhabits sparse forests, forest-steppes and steppes; in Dauria, it partially remains for the winter. Birds arrive in March as individuals, rarely in large groups. They occupy old nests of crows, rooks and other birds located on trees and rocks. Egg laying begins in May. A full clutch contains 3–6 buffy eggs with densely arranged rusty-brown spots. The clutch is incubated by the female and the male for 28 days. Chicks appear in late May - early June. They begin to fly from the age of one month, and after 2–3 weeks they feed on their own. The kestrel feeds on small rodents and birds, lizards, and insects. Prey is enough on the fly and from the ground. Looking out for prey, the kestrel at a low altitude, often flapping its wings, hangs in the air in one place. Migration of birds is observed from September to October. Those that remain for the winter are concentrated in the fields, along overgrown ravines. The common kestrel is beneficial by exterminating a large number of small rodents - pests of crops.
Greenfinch (Carduelis chloris )
A bird the size of a sparrow - weighs 20–28 g, body length - about 14.5 cm. The body is dense, the tail is short, with a distinct notch. The female is gray with a greenish tint. The male has a yellowish-green chest, dark strokes on the back, and a yellow-tinged loin. The beak is thick and light.
They inhabit sparse forests, edges, groves with copses, gardens and parks. In some cities, this bird is the most common.
The nest is built low on a tree in a fork of branches at a height of 1.5–4 m, sometimes up to 6–8 m or more. The clutch consists of 4-6 creamy white eggs with speckles. One female incubates for 12–14 days. The chicks hatch from the eggs naked, blind, but grow quickly and fly out of the nest at the age of 13-14 days. They are fed by both parents.
In summer it feeds mainly on insects: beetles, ants, etc., in the second half of summer and autumn - berries, buds and seeds of herbaceous plants.
common redstart
( Phoenicurus phoenicurus )
Body length 14-15 cm. Coloring - a combination of red, black, brown and white. The red tail (hence the name) is constantly in motion, then rising up, then falling down. The back is gray, the forehead is white, the sides of the head and throat are black, the wings are brown. The belly, like the tail, is reddish. Males are brighter than females - females are brownish-gray, with a light throat and abdomen. They live in forests, gardens, bushes, along river banks; also settle near human habitation. In winter, they keep in the savannah and woodlands.
Nests are arranged in hollows, crevices of rocks, on the ground under bushes, and sometimes they are content with depressions in the soil. Outside, the nest is always covered or hidden. The clutch of 5–7 pale blue eggs is incubated by the female. In total, 6 species of redstarts live on the territory of our country: the gray-headed redstart (common), the black redstart, the white-capped redstart, the Siberian redstart, the red-backed redstart and the red-bellied redstart. All these species live in the southern regions of Siberia, and only the common redstart is widespread throughout almost the entire territory of Russia. They feed mainly on insects, berries and fruits. Willingly eat land snails.
The group of tree-shrub birds confined to forests of various types and shrub thickets is the most numerous in terms of the number of species (see Fig. 37). Among our birds of this group there are carnivores, omnivores and herbivores. In the tropics, there are quite a lot of small birds that drink nectar and eat stamens and anthers; they provide cross-pollination for many plants. Most species feed on branches, less often on the ground. Flycatchers and some other species, taking off from a perch, catch insects that have flown close in the air. Nests are usually located in the forks of branches, in some species - in hollows. Arboreal specialization is most clearly manifested in parrots, which deftly climb branches with the help of their hind limbs and beak, and in woodpeckers, which move freely along vertical trunks, clinging with their paws and leaning on a hard tail, and gouging bark and wood in search of insects living there. Some arboreal birds feed more on the ground, sometimes flying out to feed on meadows and fields (starlings, thrushes, pigeons, etc.). Forest grouse (capercaillie, hazel grouse, etc.) nest on the ground and also feed on the ground during the snowless period, and in winter they feed in crowns, eating: capercaillie - needles, and hazel grouse - buds and catkins.
Representatives of the shrubby bird family have 2 pairs of muscles of the lower larynx. The family contains 1 genus Arichornis, which includes 2 species. These birds are almost the size of a starling, with a long tail, short and weak, rounded wings. The general coloration is brownish, the throat is white, there is a black band on the chest, the sides are reddish. Males are more brightly colored and slightly larger than females. The legs of shrubby birds are strong, with which they dig the litter in search of food - mollusks, worms, and various insects. The voice is strong, many imitations of the voices of other birds and other sounds are included in the song. The nest is built from grass and dry leaves, with a roof and a side entrance, and is placed on the ground.
Red bush bird(A. rufescens), 17 -18 cm long, inhabits the moist rainforests of the eastern slope of the Great Dividing Range, on the border of Queensland and New South Wales. The habitat of this bird is Lamington National Park. Nesting - in the spring (September - November), in a clutch of 2 pinkish eggs with speckles.
Screaming bush bird(A. clamosus) - larger, about 22 cm long, inhabits a small area in the extreme southwest of Australia - the coast of Two People Bay near the city of Albany. Lives in coastal bush thickets, almost does not fly, quickly runs under the canopy of bushes. The singing is very varied, similar to the nightingale, the birds often sing in a duet. Nests in winter (June), in clutch 1 whitish mottled egg. This species was considered extinct for a long time, since since 1899, for more than 80 years, it could not be found in nature. The population of Two People Bay was discovered in 1961, and now a reserve has been organized there.
Bush birds are listed in the Red Book of the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
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According to modern ideas, the formation of birds was associated with an arboreal way of life, characteristic of Archeopteryx and, apparently, for all less specialized ancestral forms that have not yet been discovered. Most of the living species are confined to forests and shrubs. However, paleontological evidence suggests that already in the Cretaceous, birds associated with water bodies appeared: Ichthyornis, apparently, ecologically resembled gulls or petrels, and hesperornis led an aquatic lifestyle, like loons or grebes, and even lost the ability to fly. All this suggests that since the emergence of the class of birds, its evolution has proceeded along the path of wide adaptive radiation: morphological and physiological features specific to the class as a whole have been developed, and at the same time, more particular adaptations have arisen that make it possible to master various habitats and various life niches. These particular adaptations (idioadaptations) are very multifaceted (have a variety of adaptive significance) and represent morphophysiological, ecological, and behavioral rearrangements that provide (in relation to the conditions of a given habitat) the optimal nature of movement, nutrition, reproduction, protection from enemies and adverse weather effects. They determine the nature of the flight and other movements inherent in the species (walking, running, jumping, swimming, diving), the sex relationships during reproduction, the shape and color of the eggs, the size of the clutch, the level of physiological maturity of the chicks at hatching, the degree of their pubescence, the nature and rate of their postembryonic development, relationships between chicks and adult birds, the set of food used, methods of searching for and capturing prey, attitude to the territory (settled, nomadic or migrants) and to individuals of their species (single, group or colonial nesting, solitary or flocking lifestyle), daily rhythm activity (Ilyichev V.D. et al., 1982). In other words, these adaptations determine all the specific features of a given species, separating it from others. 5.1. Adaptation of birds to habitat conditionsBiological groups of birds. According to the degree of physiological maturity of the chicks at the time of hatching, all types of birds are divided into two biological groups: brood (maturely hatching, or maturonate) and chicks (immature hatching, or immaturonate). Some species occupy an intermediate position between these extreme groups. Nestlings of brood species hatch from the egg well pubescent, sighted, with open external auditory canals (Fig. 5.1). Having dried, they leave the nest and roam with their parents, maintaining visual and sound communication with them. In many species, from the first days of life, the chicks feed themselves; an adult bird only leads the brood to feeding places, protects the chicks, warms them (all anseriformes, galliformes, bustards, many waders). In other species, adult birds feed chicks for quite a long time, gradually learning to find food (grebes, cranes, shepherds, some waders). Chicks usually need only relatively short-term heating, as they have dense pubescence. In many species, sufficiently perfect thermoregulation is established already on the 1st-4th day after hatching. Relatively longer than in adults, the hind limbs facilitate the movement of the chicks. In chickens, the wing skeleton grows intensively and wing feathers are quickly formed, which allows the chicks to fly over already at the age of 5-8 days. In case of danger, usually at the alarm of the parents, the chicks hide; the cryptic coloration of the down makes them hardly noticeable against the background of the substrate. An adult bird often tries to take the predator away from the hidden brood: it runs, noisily flapping its wings, beats on the spot, etc. as a result of the manifestation of innate reflexes, and by developing conditioned reflexes and imitating the behavior of an adult bird and peers. Chicks quickly learn to find and grab food, hide from danger and adverse weather conditions, navigate the terrain, etc.
Chicks of immature hatching species emerge from eggs naked (copepods, swifts, woodpeckers, some coraciiformes and passerines) or very slightly pubescent (coraxiformes, many passeriformes), with closed eyes and closed external auditory canals (Fig. 5.2). The chicks remain in the nest until they almost reach adult size and fledge. They need regular heating (thermoregulation is established only by the time of departure from the nest) and feeding. At the moment of hatching, they react unambiguously to all irritations (noise, shaking of the nest, touch, etc.): they stretch their head and neck up and open their beak wide (“asking for food”). Often brighter than in adults, sometimes with spots, the color of the mouth and tongue serves as an irritant that causes the instinct of feeding in parents. In hollow-nesting chicks, fleshy growths in the corners of the mouth (twitches, tits) and, in addition, a longer mandible (woodpeckers, hoopoes, starlings) increase the size of the pharynx, which makes it easier for the chick to capture food brought by adults. In many species, a calcaneal callus is quite well expressed - an overgrowth of keratinized skin on the underside of the intertarsal joint. On the 4-6th day of life (somewhat later in hollow-nesting birds), the chicks begin to see clearly (moving eyelids open their eyes); at about the same time, the external auditory canals open. During this period, the chicks begin to analyze external stimuli: when their parents appear on the nest, they ask for food (if they are hungry), and in response to all sorts of other stimuli, they hide at the bottom of the nest. Further, plumage gradually begins to form and unfold; with some delay, thermoregulation is established and the duration of heating of the chicks by the parents is reduced. With half-open plumage, the behavior of the chicks becomes more complicated: when their parents arrive, they ask for food, with unusual stimuli (noise, shaking of the nest, etc.) they hide, and with especially strong stimuli (sharp shaking of the nest, the appearance of a predator or a person at the nest, etc.) .) jump out of the nest and hide on the ground; this allows at least part of the brood to survive the attack of a predator. After the alarm ceases, the chicks usually do not return to the nest, but, answering the calls of adults, gather somewhere together; adults continue to feed them and, if necessary, warm them. Normal departure from the nest occurs when the chicks have reached or almost reached the size of adults (their mass may even slightly exceed the mass of adults due to the accumulation of fat reserves); the main groups of feathers (including the flight feathers) almost complete their growth (opened webs of contour feathers cover the entire body, wings have formed, but the tail feathers are usually still very short). By the time of departure, full thermoregulation is established. In most birds, hatched broods roam with their parents for 1-2 weeks (sometimes longer). Adults continue to feed the chicks, attract them to places where food is concentrated, warn them of danger, etc. It is during this period that the formation of a specific stereotype of behavior takes place on the basis of the deployment of a complex of innate reflexes and the acquisition of individual experience while imitating adults and peers. Thus, the acquisition of individual experience necessary for independent life, the use of the "experience of generations" (by imitating adults) in brood species begins immediately after hatching, while in nestling species - only in the second half of their stay in the nest and mainly after it is abandoned. In birds of prey, chicks are covered with fluff when they hatch, they are sighted, but they need heating for a long time and leave the nest only when they are fully fledged and have acquired the ability to fly. The same can be said about owls, whose chicks hatch with their eyes closed, but quite well furred. In storks, sighted and pubescent chicks at hatching remain in the nest until they acquire the ability to fly, and heron chicks that hatch naked or slightly pubescent, with half-closed eyes, half-fledged, often, especially in danger, leave the nest and hide nearby. These examples show that there is no clear gap between brood and nestling groups: there are species with a more or less intermediate type of development. Ecological groups of birds. In the process of evolution among birds, a large number of various forms have been developed, adapted to life in a wide variety of conditions. Some birds inhabited forests and bush thickets, where they developed an appropriate paw arrangement for life among the branches. Other forms adapted to life on the water, and their further development followed the path of specialization in swimming and diving. Some forms, to a greater extent than others, have mastered the air environment and spend most of their lives on wings, revealing various adaptations in the structure of the wing, which ensure the soaring flight of large predators, the swift active flight of swifts and swallows. Steppes and deserts are inhabited by a number of species that have adapted to walking and running on hard ground. Based on the preferred types of landscapes and features of movement, the following main ecological groups of birds are distinguished: tree-shrub, terrestrial-tree, terrestrial, near-water, aquatic, hunting on the fly. It should be noted that, as with any other attempts at biological classifications, a fairly large number of species occupies an intermediate position, as it were, and their assignment to one group or another turns out to be rather arbitrary, so the boundaries between the distinguished groups are fuzzy and very conditional. Arboreal-shrub birds they feed mainly in the crowns of trees and shrubs, in thickets of reeds and other surface plants, where they nest. Nests of varying degrees of complexity, in some species very skillfully woven, warm and durable; some species nest in hollows. The bulk of the species of this group are various families of passerines, orioles, some corvids, titmouses, warblers and many others. This also includes cuckoos and woodpeckers. Gathering food, birds jump from branch to branch, sometimes helping with flapping wings. Small birds of this group, clinging to the irregularities of the bark with strong fingers with sharp claws, can move along vertical tree trunks (titmouse, nuthatch, pika). In real woodpeckers, the structure of the paws changes: two fingers are directed forward, two - back; all fingers carry powerful, strongly curved sharp claws, reliably clinging to any irregularities in the bark. The tail of strong hard tail feathers is pressed against the trunk and serves as an additional point of support (Fig. 5.3). These features allow woodpeckers not only to move along vertical trunks, but also to hammer. Species of this group feed on various insects and other invertebrates, fruits, berries and seeds, some species eat buds, anthers of flowers, drink nectar. Some of the larger species (corvids, woodpeckers) eat the eggs and chicks of other birds along the way. The shape of the beak and tongue corresponds to the nature of food specialization. In predominantly insectivorous species, an elongated thin beak allows (like with tweezers) to pull prey out of cracks in the bark, from the axils of the leaves. Flycatchers, shrikes and others often lie in wait for prey, sitting quietly on a branch and, having taken off, they catch an insect that has flown close. Such fishing is facilitated by a slightly expanded, flattened beak (flycatcher). Seed-eating species with a strong conical beak are able to split or gnaw dense shells of seeds (gross grosbeak gnaws the bones of cherries and olives). With sharp, strongly intersecting ends of a powerful beak, crossbills deftly open the scales of cones of coniferous trees, taking out seeds; the sharp keratinized end of the tongue cuts off the wings of the seeds. Woodpeckers with a powerful chisel-shaped beak hollow out bark and wood, opening the passages of insects and their larvae. Long tongue Can protrude from the mouth almost to the length of the beak, has spines pointing backwards at the end and is covered with sticky saliva. The woodpecker inserts the tongue into the opened passage and pulls out the prey with the tongue.
Ground-arboreal birds close to the first group in appearance and differ only in that they are equally successful in gathering food both in the crowns and on the ground. Some species build nests in the crowns of trees and shrubs, nest in hollows or nest on the ground. This includes part of the grouse (grouse, black grouse, hazel grouse) (Fig. 5.4), many corvids, thrushes, wrens, starlings, many weavers, finches, buntings. In this group, there are both insectivorous species and omnivores that feed on various invertebrates (and some, such as corvids, and vertebrates), berries, seeds, and vegetative parts of plants. Variations in beak structure correspond to food specialization and are similar to many beak variations in the first group. In the crowns, they jump from branch to branch; on the ground, small species usually move by jumping, and larger ones (grouse, pigeons, parrots) by steps. Species of similar sizes can also differ in gait: for example, thrushes and magpies jump on the ground, and starlings, jackdaws, rooks, and crows walk. Some species, looking for food, rake the top layer of the litter (grouse, blackbirds). H This also includes a number of long-legged species, in appearance resembling near-water birds: some crane-like (demon-crane) and a secretary bird from diurnal birds of prey. Elongated limbs (especially the tarsus tarsus) with strong fingers allow these birds to easily run through tall grass, chasing reptiles (lizards, snakes) and large insects. Prey is seized with a beak (cranes) or paws (secretary), then killed with a beak. Water birds inhabit a variety of damp habitats: overgrown and open banks of water bodies, vast swamps. This includes all ankle-footed, or stork-like, many cranes and charadriiformes. Most species of this group are characterized by elongated limbs (the tarsus and lower leg are elongated, the lower part of the latter is usually not feathered) with long thin fingers (all four in herons, many shepherds, in the rest the hind toe is small or absent), sometimes connected at the base by a rudimentary swimming membrane (Fig. 5.6). This makes it possible to walk and run on thick grass and in shallow waters, without wetting the plumage and without falling into the marshy muddy ground; some species (small shepherds) easily run on floating aquatic vegetation. As a rule, elongation of the limbs is accompanied by an elongation of the neck: the bird reaches the ground with its beak, only slightly tilting the body. In some species, the body is distinctly laterally compressed, allowing it to slip between the stems in dense thickets. A carelessly built nest is located on the ground, on the creases of reeds, sometimes on trees (herons, storks, ibises).
A very wide range of nutrition in this group is provided by a variety of adaptations. Cranes feed mainly on a variety of plant foods (sprouts, rhizomes and bulbs, young shoots, seeds, berries), along the way they catch (sometimes in large quantities) various invertebrates, amphibians, and lizards. They have a strong elongated beak with a pointed top. Some shepherds also use plant foods; these species have a powerful, relatively short beak. Other species of near-water birds are predominantly carnivorous. Herons and storks consume a variety of animal food (invertebrates, fish, amphibians). Water birds - a very diverse group of birds that forage by swimming and diving; some feed on land. They inhabit the coasts of the seas and various continental water bodies. This should include grebes, goose, or plate-billed, some shepherds (coots).
In species of this group, the body is usually flattened in the dorsal-ventral direction, which ensures greater stability in the water (Fig. 5.7). The plumage is close-fitting, successfully resisting getting wet. Well-developed down and down parts of the contour feather fans improve thermal insulation; this is also facilitated by the strong development of subcutaneous fat deposits. All this allows you to swim and dive in cold water for a long time. The hind limbs are relatively short; three fingers pointing forward are connected by a well-developed swimming membrane. Only in grebes, shepherds (coots) and phalaropes do not form a swimming membrane, but each of the three fingers directed forward is equipped with elastic and durable horn rims, which also noticeably increase the paddling surface of the paw. In well-diving species, the sternum usually lengthens and the number of ribs increases (improvement in the protection of internal organs from external pressure), the pelvis narrows, and in some good divers, the legs move back (toadstools).
Water birds usually nest near water bodies, more often on the ground, less often on reeds and trees. Toadstools and coots build floating nests in thickets of emersed vegetation. The vast majority of species of this group are carnivorous: they feed on fish and various aquatic invertebrates. The wading waders, swimming, peck with a thin tweezer-like beak from the surface of the water and the leaves of surface plants of various small invertebrates. In coots of moderate length, which feed mainly on plant food, a strong beak makes it possible to tear off pieces of plants and seize aquatic animals. Anseriformes have a well-developed thickened area at the end of the expanded beak - a nail that forms a small hook; horny plates along the edges of the mandible and mandible and on the sides of the fleshy tongue form a filtering apparatus that releases water and silt, but retains food objects in the oral cavity: various small animals and seeds. A strong nail allows you to tear off attached mollusks, parts of plants, etc. In ducks that feed on small animals, especially shovelers, the plates of the filtering apparatus are thin, long, and very densely seated. In eiders, which feed mainly on relatively large attached mollusks, and in geese, which feed largely on land on land plants, a strong nail at the end of the beak and coarse, more rarely seated plates along its edges make it easy to tear off and crush shells of mollusks, pinch fresh greens. In mergansers, these plates turn into teeth, making it easier to hold the fish. Of the passerine birds, the dipper should be included in this group. They feed on insects, their larvae and other invertebrates, collecting them on the banks and at the bottom of rivers and streams, and retain the typical appearance of passerines (only the plumage is somewhat denser, dense down is developed on the apteria, wings and especially the tail are short). They cannot dive in standing water. Birds that hunt in flight a heterogeneous and diverse group, including representatives of many families, close relatives of which are included in the previously described groups. More common in open landscapes. Quite a few species of this group are associated with water. These are birds with long, narrow, pointed wings, which have maneuverable flight and are usually capable of prolonged soaring. The fingers are connected by a swimming membrane. Resting on the water or on the shore. The most common method of hunting is flying at different heights above the water and rapidly diving for prey (fish, large invertebrates) seen on the surface or in the upper layer of the water. Due to the energy of diving, birds can dive into the water, grabbing prey with their beak at this moment. This is how gulls, terns and phalaropes hunt. Seagulls often forage by roaming shallow waters and over land. Many birds of prey (eagles, buzzards, kites) soar high in the air for hours, looking for prey, and then catch up with active flight, dive and grab on the ground (and birds in the air). Unlike birds that hunt above water, their wings are somewhat shorter, but noticeably wider, with a blunt top. The prey is seized by powerful paws armed with sharp claws, killed and torn apart by a strong beak with a sharp hook at the end. The osprey and many sea eagles feed mainly on large fish: they soar above water bodies and, diving, grab prey that has risen to the surface with their paws. Hawks use two methods of hunting: the predator sits in a shelter and suddenly rushes to the approaching prey or flies, more often along the edges, and grabs the frightened prey in a quick throw. They are characterized by relatively short wings and a long tail, making it possible to pursue prey even among the branches. The falcons, which have a swift maneuverable flight, usually fly around their hunting area and, in a swift throw - dive - grab the encountered victim in the air or on the ground. When looking for prey on the ground, small falcons are capable of hovering in the air for a short time in a fluttering flight. In addition to the main method of hunting - looking out for prey in flight and grabbing it on the fly - many predators catch large insects while roaming the ground, watch for rodents, drag chicks from nests. Owls search for their prey in flight or lie in wait, sitting in ambush, and catch in a short throw, grabbing the prey with their paws. Unlike diurnal birds of prey, the main receptor for detecting and seizing prey in owls is not vision, but hearing. Nightjars, like owls, lead a twilight and nocturnal lifestyle; they feed mainly on large insects, which they catch in the air or, more rarely, peck on the fly from the ground and branches. They also have silent, maneuverable flight; the plumage is soft, although not to the same extent as that of owls. Long sharp wings, swift maneuverable flight, a small beak, but a very wide section of the mouth, bordered by hard bristles at the corners, are the features of swifts and swallows ecologically close to them. Swallows catch prey only in flight; other methods of hunting are not used. They feed on small insects. Swallows are able to peck perched insects from branches and leaves on the fly. Only in flight bee-eaters catch large flying insects. A rather long beak, thinning towards the end, slightly curved downwards, the absence of long bristles in the corners of the mouth - these features of the bee-eaters are associated with the larger size of their prey compared to the food objects of swallows and swifts. Such a classification is schematic, but it gives a fairly complete picture of the ecological diversity of the class of birds. They have mastered almost all habitable niches: only sea depths over 50-60 m and the thickness of the soil remain inaccessible to them (although some pitchforks dig nesting holes). Within each ecological group, a great diversity is revealed in biotopic confinement, in nesting places and types of nests, in the sets of food used and methods of obtaining them, which correlates with many species features - the proportions of the limbs and the nature of movement, the properties of plumage, the shape of the beak and tongue, structural details digestive system, the structure of receptors, etc. Despite the obvious ecological diversity, the general appearance of birds, as well as their morphophysiological features, varies within relatively small limits. The diversity of appearance, size, and morphophysiological features among mammals is much more pronounced. This greater, in comparison with mammals, morphophysiological homogeneity of birds, apparently, is due to the adaptation to flight, which created severe restrictions on variations in the shape of the body and its functioning systems. Trophic groups of birds. The food spectrum of the bird class is quite wide and includes a variety of plant and animal food. According to the variety of food used, birds are usually divided into three groups: polyphages, stenophages, and intermediates. Polyphages(omnivores) feed on a wide variety of plant and animal foods. Approximately 1/3 of the families can be attributed to this group, and within each family, omnivorousness is more pronounced in larger species. An example of the most typical polyphagous birds can be large corvids (crows, crows, etc.), large gulls, and cranes. Stenofagi - species that consume homogeneous food and use the same methods of catching prey. Stenophagy is relatively rare in birds. Swifts and many nightjars, which feed only on flying insects, and swallows, which also catch insects in the air, but can also peck them on the fly from plants, should be attributed to stenophages. This group also includes typical scavengers, as well as species that feed only on large fish, such as the osprey. The stenophages also include crossbills, which feed mainly on the seeds of coniferous trees. Intermediate The group consists of the majority of birds that feed on a fairly wide range of foods. Such are many passerines, feeding on both various insects and seeds. Toadstools feed on fish and a variety of large aquatic invertebrates; green parts of plants, berries, seeds and various invertebrates - galliformes. The degree of forage diversity in different species is expressed differently. For example, in loons and cormorants, aquatic invertebrates usually make up only a small addition to the fish diet, while in many grebes they may even be the predominant food group. According to the composition of food in the class of birds, a number of ecological groups are also distinguished. Species that feed primarily on plants are called phytophages. Geese, swans, some ducks, coots feed mainly on a variety of coastal and aquatic vegetation, eating various aquatic animals along the way. Green parts of plants, berries, seeds, buds, catkins are the basis of the nutrition of galliformes. Mostly seeds feed on many passerines - weavers, finches (especially crossbills, grosbeaks, greenfinches), larks. However, all phytophages, if possible, use a variety of animal food to some extent; their consumption especially increases during the breeding season, since most of these birds feed their chicks mainly with animal feed. Species that feed primarily on animal food are called zoophagous, although many of them, albeit to a small extent, eat plant foods. Nearly a third of living bird families are exclusively or predominantly insectivorous ( entomophages); almost all birds use insects to some extent. Many aquatic and semi-aquatic species feed mainly on fish. (ichthyophages), while eating aquatic invertebrates. Many birds of prey and owls belong to myophages, those. feeds mainly on small rodents. Few birds of prey can be named ornithophages: hawks, falcons (peregrine falcon and hobby falcon), marsh harrier and some others feed mainly on birds. TO herpetophages(feed on amphibians and reptiles) include the serpent eagle, secretary bird, and some large kingfishers. However, such a division by type of food is largely arbitrary and schematic. The change in nutrition is characteristic of all groups. Typical ornithophages, for example, catch mammals, lizards and large insects on occasion. Due to the seasonality of the appearance of different types of food, many species of birds have a seasonal change in nutrition. The degree of variability is determined by the nature of food specialization. Quite sharp differences in the quantity and degree of availability of various food groups in different years cause changes in the nutrition spectrum of many birds over the years. There are a lot of known examples of such seasonal, geographical and annual variability in nutrition. It is well expressed even in stenophagous birds. For birds, the opposite feature is also characteristic - when mass, easily accessible food appears, species that usually do not use it begin to feed on it. When puddles and shallow lakes dry up, mollusks, tadpoles and fish fry remaining on the mud are picked up not only by crows and magpies, but also by pigeons, thrushes, shrikes. The number of birds sharply increases in places of mass reproduction of insects or mouse-like rodents, in orchards when cherries ripen, and on plantations when berries ripen. This ability to quickly find accumulations of food and use them determines the participation of birds in limiting and eliminating foci of pests. Almost all birds have a pronounced age-related change in food to one degree or another. In mature chicks that feed themselves (anseriformes, galliformes, many waders), this age change of food is primarily due to the fact that, due to their small size and poorly developed methods of obtaining food, part of the food obtained by adults is simply inaccessible to chicks. As the chicks grow, these nutritional differences gradually disappear. Immature chicks eat what their parents bring them. In many species, the age-related variability of nutrition is well expressed, due to the selective delivery of food by adult birds, which, undoubtedly, significantly accelerates the growth and increases the survival of chicks. So, great tits try to carry spiders to newly hatched chicks, and sometimes they squeeze out only their “contents” into the open beak of the chick, and swallow the “shell” themselves. After two or three days, the parents begin to feed the chicks with small larvae, caterpillars, butterflies with ragged wings, aphids and other soft insects, and the already grown feathering chicks are often fed with beetles. Adult birds themselves eat at this time any insects available to them. Other passeriformes do the same. Only greenfinches and crossbills feed their chicks mainly with seeds. Ways to get food birds are not very diverse. The vast majority of species take prey with their beak. In accordance with food specialization, the shape and relative size of the beak vary widely. The straight or curved, very long and thin beaks of waders and some passerines enable them to forage from moist soil or from narrow and deep hiding places. The sharply conical, powerful at the base beaks of many granivorous birds facilitate the grasping and chewing of seeds. Powerful beaks of birds of prey, owls, and partly shrikes, with a sharp “hook” on the upper beak of varying length, help to hold and tear food; beaks with numerous plates along the edges, which allow filtering small prey, are characteristic of anseriformes. Swifts, nightjars and swallows have small beaks with a very large mouth slit and bristles in its corners, which form a kind of "net" that makes it easier to catch small flying insects. No less diverse is the form of the tongue, which in many birds not only helps in swallowing the food bolus, but also participates in grasping and holding the prey. Thus, the tongue of woodpeckers, which is strongly retractable, usually equipped with sharp spikes at the end, allows you to find the larva in the hollowed out passage and pull it out. The fleshy, movable tongue of many seed-eating passerines, along with ridges on the palate, makes it convenient to place a seed or nut on the edge of the beak for cracking the shell. With a movable tongue with a flattened keratinized apex, the crossbills cut off the coniferous seed pods. Fishing birds and a variety of aquatic invertebrates have numerous sharp spines directed towards the pharynx on the tongue, which facilitates the holding and swallowing of prey (toadstools, mergansers). The fleshy and mobile tongue of anseriformes, bordered by plates, is involved in filtering food. Diurnal predators and owls grab prey, especially large ones, with their paws. Depending on food specialization, the shape and length of the claws, the mobility of the fingers, and the nature of the horny cover on the soles of the fingers (for example, the development of sharp horny spines in the osprey) vary. Some birds, when pecking prey, support it with their paws (tits, some corvids). Nutcrackers are nuts, and woodpeckers - nuts and cones are thrust into cracks and, having strengthened them in this way, peck. Shrikes impale large prey on dry sharp knots, and then peck and tear. Sometimes crows and large gulls, having grabbed hard prey (toothless, crabs, etc.), take off and then throw the prey to the ground; this technique is repeated many times until the shell or shell cracks. Perhaps some birds of prey with turtles (vulture) or with large bones (bearded vulture) do this. The use of "tools" by birds has also been described. The woodpecker, holding a cactus needle or a dry twig in its beak at one end, picks it in the cracks of the bark, driving the insect out and then grabbing it with its beak. Flying from tree to tree, the finch sometimes drags a thorn along with it. life expectancy and mortality. Life expectancy is an important biological and demographic indicator, without knowing which it is impossible to clearly understand the patterns of seasonal and long-term population movements. In birds, lifespan, like most other demographic parameters, is determined almost exclusively from banding data. The use of ringing for more than 80 years has led to the fact that the life span of birds is now known for very many species and is better studied in nature than in other animals. In birds, there are average life expectancy, average expected and maximum. Average life expectancy - is the average number of years of life ahead of newborns. Average life expectancy individuals of any particular age is the mathematical expectation of the duration of the forthcoming life after reaching this age. An accurate calculation of the average age of death in months of life is possible only if the date of hatching of each bird is known, but more often the average life expectancy is calculated in years. Average life expectancy is determined on the assumption that age-specific mortality rates remain unchanged throughout the lifetime of the generation under study. Under maximum life span the maximum age for the studied population at which some of its individual members die. This indicator is primarily physiological and refers only to single results of individual tagging of birds, and therefore there is no guarantee that this maximum will not be exceeded. It can only testify to the theoretical possibility of living to a certain age. However, the average maximum lifespan in nature and in captivity can differ significantly. In addition, the maximum life span of birds in a certain way depends on the size of their body (Table 5.1). In passerine birds, the maximum life expectancy exceeds the average expected by 3–9 times; in predators, by 5 times. It turns out that for every thousand birds there are from 1 to 17 individuals at the maximum age. A comparison of data on the maximum lifespan of birds for one hundred species from different orders made it possible to draw the following conclusions. The maximum lifespan of birds in nature is more than the average expected (for one-year-old birds) by an average of 7 times (from 2 to 20). The maximum life span in captivity (of course, with appropriate optimal maintenance) is rarely less than in nature, usually more, on average 1.6 times. Thus, the maximum lifespan of birds in captivity can serve as an indicator of "potential longevity", which exceeds the average lifespan by an average of 11 times. There is a relationship between the average life span of birds and their body weight, expressed by a power function equation. Table 5.1 Maximum bird lifespan (according to V. A. Paevsky, 1985, with changes)
Mortality, as well as life expectancy, is the main biological and demographic parameter. The relationship between fecundity and mortality is the most important aspect of the study of population size, since in any population these parameters are in dynamic equilibrium. Mortality of adult birds occupies an exceptional position among other demographic parameters. The accuracy of determining the average annual mortality of mature members of the population depends on the correctness of the assessment of other indicators and a general idea of the patterns of movement in the number of birds. The mortality rate determines the duration of the individual's participation in the reproduction of the population and the specific features of the breeding strategy. Allocate mortality of adult birds, nestling and embryonic. Adult birds die from a fairly wide range of causes. The division of bird death factors into natural and anthropogenic is hardly justified in our time. Most of the species, or at least most of the populations that can be observed, live in an environment that has been modified in one way or another by human activity. If a population breeds in any areas closest to undisturbed biocenoses, then during the period of seasonal movements, many, if not all, members of such a population encounter certain impacts of civilization. The whole space in which birds are found at different periods of the annual cycle, with separate sections of the cultural landscape, whether it be a city or agricultural land, can be considered as a whole, and its individual elements will be more or less natural for different species. Therefore, when considering the causes of death of birds, it is impossible to clearly separate natural causes from artificial ones. For example, the death of birds on the roads is now one of the usual factors of mortality, but during periods of sharp cold snaps and an abundance of snow, many birds accumulate on the highway and their death, initially caused by weather conditions, increases from anthropogenic causes. The only factor of mortality, which is usually considered separately from all others - hunting - can be attributed to purely anthropogenic. When discussing the causes of mortality in birds, apparently, not all factors of death are taken into account. For example, according to the general opinion of researchers, the main cause of death in nestlings is predation, but this factor is rarely indicated in publications on the causes of death of adult birds. It is possible that the carcasses of birds that died from hypothermia, starvation or poisoning are found more often than the remains of birds eaten. Mortality of birds is directly related to breeding success, which is most often understood as the degree of survival of eggs and chicks until the chicks leave the nests. However, in brood and semi-brood birds, in many cases only the success of hatching is determined, which is hardly comparable with the success of hatching in chicks and is a specific indicator that is important only for these groups of birds. The proportion of young birds that have risen to the wing of the number of eggs laid in ducks, gulls and other non-chicks is determined much less frequently than in chicks; in the best case, the researcher has an idea of the ratio of young and adult birds at the end of the breeding season, however, this is also enough to estimate other population parameters. Breeding success is different in birds with brood and nestling types of development, and among the latter - in open-nesting and hollow-nesting birds. In the temperate zone of Europe and America, the breeding success of chicks varies from 22 to 77% (46% on average). In open-nesting chicks, from the number of eggs laid, on average, about 65% of chicks hatch and about 47% of fledglings fly out of the nests. In chicks hollow-nesters, the flight success rate is 26-94% (66% on average). In brood birds, an average of 25% of the birds from the number of eggs laid rise to the wing. The total average egg loss in chicken birds is 1.6% per day, which gives an overall hatching success rate of 45%. Daily egg losses in chicks were found to be quite comparable with those of true ducks (1.6%) and with losses of eggs and chicks in open-breeding passerines (1.9%), while daily egg losses of diving ducks (0.8%) were found to be similar. with those of passerine hollow nesters (0.9%). Predation (eating eggs and chicks) is only a special case of any destruction of nests, leading to the death of masonry and brood. Destruction of nests by humans or abandonment of nests due to human disturbance, trampling of ground or reed nests by livestock can cause large losses in some places. In birds of prey and storks, for which the factor of predation itself is somewhat less pronounced, the phenomena of aggression of the older members of the brood towards the younger ones or cannibalism on the part of the parents as an adaptation to possible fluctuations in the available food resources can be attributed to the category of intrapopulation mechanisms of population regulation. In the vast majority of populations of various species, the death of eggs and chicks from predators is the largest share - up to 80% of all losses. It is important to note that in small hollow-nesters, which have the highest chick survival rate among passerine birds, fledglings immediately after emergence are also subject to the potential impact of predators, as in other birds. Under embryonic mortality refers to the total proportion of eggs with dead embryos and unfertilized eggs. Despite the fact that the causes of embryonic mortality proper can be not only anomalies associated with the development of the embryo, but also damage to the shell or its defects, they are usually also included in the total number of eggs with embryonic mortality. The classification of all these types of non-hatching into one loss category is justified, since their level can be a characteristic feature of the species. Despite the rather high level of species and annual variations in embryonic mortality, the overall average values of this indicator for the order of passerine birds in different parts of the world are very similar. The proportion of undeveloped eggs from the number of eggs laid in clutches and preserved until hatching was 4.0% for passerines in the forest zone of the European part of the former USSR, 5.1% in North America, 4.6% in the Tien Shan subhighlands, and 5.8% in the Curonian Spit. For non-passerine birds, this figure is often much higher, ranging from 1.7 to 20.3%. As a result of the impact of all factors that determine the level of mortality from embryonic death to death of birds on wintering grounds, the real age-sex structure of a population of a particular species is formed. For a finch, for example, it looks like this. From the spring arrival to the hatching of the chicks, half of the entire population is made up of one-year-old individuals, i.e. birds participating in breeding for the first time. Birds aged 2 to 3 years - 22%, from 3 to 4 years - 12%. With this structure, for every thousand finches, there are only 8 individuals older than 7 years.
bush birds(lat. Atrichornithidae listen)) is a family of passerine birds, the closest relative of Lyrebirds (Menuridae), with which they form the taxon Menurida. There are two known species found only in Australia. They are endangered. Both species are close in size to starlings (approximately 20 cm in length), have camouflaging brown plumage. They live in the forest and undergrowth and are very difficult to see in nature. Male singing is very loud; loud and metallic. List of species
Write a review on the article "Shrub Birds"An excerpt characterizing the bush birdsPierre answered that the child belonged to a woman and a black coat, who sat with the children in this place, and asked if anyone knew her and where she had gone.“After all, it must be the Anferovs,” said the old deacon, turning to the pockmarked woman. “Lord have mercy, Lord have mercy,” he added in his usual bass. - Where are the Anferovs! - said the grandmother. - The Anferovs left in the morning. And this is either Marya Nikolaevna or the Ivanovs. - He says - a woman, and Marya Nikolaevna - a lady, - said the courtyard man. “Yes, you know her, her teeth are long, thin,” said Pierre. - And there is Marya Nikolaevna. They went into the garden, when these wolves swooped in, - said the woman, pointing to the French soldiers. “Oh, Lord have mercy,” added the deacon again. - You go here and there, they are there. She is. She was still crying, she was crying, - the woman said again. - She is. Here it is. But Pierre did not listen to the woman. For several seconds he had been staring at what was happening a few steps away from him without taking his eyes off him. He looked at the Armenian family and the two French soldiers who had approached the Armenians. One of these soldiers, a small fidgety little man, was dressed in a blue overcoat, belted with a rope. He had a cap on his head and his feet were bare. The other, who especially struck Pierre, was a long, round-shouldered, blond, thin man with slow movements and an idiotic expression on his face. This one was dressed in a frieze hood, blue trousers and large torn over the knee boots. A little Frenchman, without boots, in blue, hissed, approaching the Armenians, immediately, saying something, took hold of the old man's legs, and the old man immediately began hastily taking off his boots. The other, in the hood, stopped in front of the beautiful Armenian woman and silently, motionless, holding his hands in his pockets, looked at her.
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terrestrial birds a combined group that unites birds with varying degrees of adaptation to a terrestrial lifestyle. Quite a few species retain the appearance of tree-shrub or terrestrial-arboreal birds, but feed almost exclusively on the ground where they build a nest, however, for rest and in case of danger, they willingly sit on trees and bushes. The terrestrial way of life of these species is provided primarily by behavioral features. Morphological adaptations are not clearly expressed: the claws are usually slightly less curved, the strong hind limbs of many species allow them to rake the litter in search of food, and some species develop a protective coloration (Fig. 5.5). They walk and run on the ground, not jump. They feed on various insects and other invertebrates, collecting them on the ground and grass (jumping and taking off, some also catch flying insects), eat seeds and berries. These species include some passerines (larks, skates, wagtails, coinage), hoopoe. More distinct adaptations to a terrestrial way of life are characteristic of most chickens. The strong hind limbs of these species are relatively short. Strong short fingers end in blunt claws; the rear (first) toe is usually small or completely reduced. All these ground birds walk and run well. When threatened, they run away or fly away; many species are lurking. The food is predominantly vegetable (vegetative parts of plants, seeds, berries, tubers), but willingly, and sometimes in large quantities, they eat a variety of invertebrates and small lizards. Beaks in all species are strong, of varying length, usually with a pointed end, ensuring the capture of both animal and plant food.
